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1、Artificial Intelligence in Second Language LearningSECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITIONSeries Editor: Professor David Singleton, Trinity College, Dublin, IrelandThis new series will bring together titles dealing with a variety of aspects of language acquisition and processing in situations where a language o
2、r languages other than the native language is involved. Second language will thus be interpreted in its broadest possible sense. The volumes included in the series will all in their different ways offer, on the one hand, exposition and discussion of empirical findings and, on the other, some degree
3、of theoretical reflection. In this latter connection, no particular theoretical stance will be privileged in the series; nor will any relevant perspective sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, etc. be deemed out of place. The intended readership of the series will be final-year undergr
4、aduates working on second language acquisition projects, postgraduate students involved in second language acquisition research, and researchers and teachers in general whose interests include a second language acquisition component.Other Books in the SeriesPortraits of the L2 UserVivian Cook (ed.)L
5、earning to Request in a Second Language: A Study of Child Interlanguage PragmaticsMachiko AchibaEffects of Second Language on the FirstVivian Cook (ed.)Age and the Acquisition of English as a Foreign LanguageMara del Pilar Garca Mayo and Maria Luisa Garca Lecumberri (eds)Fossilization in Adult Secon
6、d Language AcquisitionZhaoHong HanSilence in Second Language Learning: A Psychoanalytic Reading Colette A. GrangerAge, Accent and Experience in Second Language Acquisition Alene MoyerStudying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning Diana Boxer and Andrew D. Cohen (eds)Language Acquisition: The A
7、ge Factor (2nd edition)David Singleton and Lisa RyanFocus on French as a Foreign Language: Multidisciplinary Approaches Jean-Marc Dewaele (ed.)Second Language Writing SystemsVivian Cook and Benedetta Bassetti (eds)Third Language Learners: Pragmatic Production and Awareness Maria Pilar Safont JordFor
8、 more details of these or any other of our publications, please contact:Multilingual Matters, Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall,Victoria Road, Clevedon, BS21 7HH, England http:/www.multilingual-SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 13Series Editor: David Singleton, Trinity College, Dublin, IrelandArtificial Inte
9、lligence in Second Language LearningRaising Error AwarenessMarina DodigovicMULTILINGUAL MATTERS LTDClevedon Buffalo TorontoLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Dodigovic, MarinaArtificial Intelligence in Second Language Learning: Raising Error Awareness Marina Dodigovic.Second Language
10、 Acquisition: 13Includes bibliographical references and index.1. Language and languagesComputer-assisted instruction. 2. Second language acquisition. 3. Language and languagesStudy and teachingError analysis.4. English languageComputer-assisted instruction for foreign speakers.I. Title. II. Second L
11、anguage Acquisition (Clevedon, England): 13. P53.28.D638 2005408.00285dc222005014805British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library.ISBN 1-85359-830-5 /EAN 978-1-85359-830-2 (hbk)ISBN 1-85359-829-1 /EAN 978-1-85359-829-6 (pbk)Multi
12、lingual Matters LtdUK: Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon BS21 7HH.USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA.Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada.Copyright 2005 Marina Dodigovic.All rights reserved. No part of this work may be repro
13、duced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher.Typeset by Archetype-IT Ltd (http:/www.archetype-).Printed and bound in Great Britain by the Cromwell Press Ltd.ContentsAcknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viiIntroduction . . .
14、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Can Another Language Be Learnt? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Theory . . . . . . .
15、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 EAP Student Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Interlanguage and Learnability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Agenda for Needs Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Where Does Research End and CALL Dev
16、elopment Begin? . . . . 47 Research Opportunities: Developmental and Evaluative . . . 47 Research vs. Development in CALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53CALL Research in its Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Identification of Research Components in a CALL Project. . 603 Why the Web? . .
17、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 CALL and its Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Great Expectations . . .
18、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Why do Innovations Get Accepted or Rejected? . . . . . . . . 79 User Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Over the Chasm and into the Mainstream . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Compatibility of CMC with Various SLA Theories,Prac
19、tices and Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 Can Computers Correct Language Errors? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85Terminology . . . . .
20、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90Parsers, ICALL, NLP, AI, ITS and CL . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137vviArtificial Intelligence in Second Language Learning5 How to Develop an Artificially Intelligent Language Tutor? . . .
21、 140 Design Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Who are the Target Learners in On-Line Courses? . . . . . . 140Study Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Needs Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 The Content: Acad
22、emic Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 EAP Student Writing vs. Established Academic Writing . . . 172 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2306 How Does it Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 The Concept of Evaluation in CALL . . . .
23、 . . . . . . . . . . 233 Formative Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 In Lieu of Summative Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24、. . . . . . . 266Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271(1) Test Case Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271(2) Intelligent Tutor of Academic English:Software Review 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272(3) Intelligent Tutor of
25、Academic English:Software Review 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297AcknowledgementsMuch as writing may be a cognitive pr
26、ocess developing in the mind of an individual, research is, and always will be, a social process, one in which an individual is inspired by the ideas of others and receives help at every step of the way. Consequently, the publication of this book would not have been possible without the help of a nu
27、mber of individuals, groups and organisa-tions, all of whom I would like to acknowledge as far as possible in this way.First and foremost, I would like to thank Macquarie University for the research and development grants, which covered important parts of the research leading to this and other publi
28、cations. Similarly, I am grateful to Zayed University for a research grant, a part of which supported the inves-tigation described in Chapter 6. I am also much indebted to Piphawin Suphawat, who conducted one of the studies described here as my post-graduate student. I also thank my former colleague
29、s for instances of theoretical input. Aliy Fowler of the University of Kent, on the other hand, very capably translated my program into SICSTUS PROLOG, and added a lot of her own thought to it as well as to the user interface in PERL, which altogether relies on her superb programming skills. Without
30、 her, the Intelli-gent Tutor described in this book would have never appeared on the Web.Apart from the above, I have received help in many other ways. Thus, my friend Min Yong single handedly organised the shipment of my private library, much needed for the literature review, while the librarians a
31、t Zayed University, Remia Philip, Ramza Al Soury and Rajen Munoo, went out of their way to enable easy access to hard-to-get books. Friends and col-leagues, David Palfreyman, Frank Borchardt, Abdellatif Sellami and Lynnette Crane, read chapters of this book and provided useful and thought-provoking
32、comments. I should not forget the students who partic-ipated in numerous studies described here, who inspired and supported the author. Thanks also to my mother and all who encouraged me to persevere with this endeavour.One organisation, however, made a huge difference; it enabled the quantum leap f
33、rom local research to global communication. This organisa-tion is my publisher, Multilingual Matters, whom I must thank for having faith in me and deciding to support this effort. In particular I am grateful toviiviiiArtificial Intelligence in Second Language Learningmy contact person, Marjukka Grov
34、er, who has been a delight to work with. My thanks are of course due to the series editor David Singleton and the confidential referees, whose comments have been most helpful. I am also indebted to CALICO, CALL and Language Awareness Journals for showing interest in and publishing articles on aspect
35、s of this research at various stages of completion. Finally, I would also like to acknowledge the value of the Language Awareness organisation, which provided an exciting forum for the exchange of ideas and their dissemination to a broader public. Thanks indeed to everyone who assisted in any way wh
36、ile this book was in the making and perhaps kindly overlooked some of the authors less praiseworthy idiosyncrasies.IntroductionSecond language learners all over the world seem doomed to making errors, which clearly label them as non-native speakers of English, Chinese, Arabic, French, German, Indone
37、sian or indeed any other language they are trying to acquire in addition to their mother tongue. The idiosyncrasies of their expression are sometimes met with patience and understanding by the native speakers of that language, while at other times, the patience and understanding seem to wane. An ane
38、cdotal example is my attempt to master some Polish while I was visiting a good friend in that country. At one time, my hostess wanted me to pronounce a particularly difficult word and I gave it my very best try. After having delivered what I thought was a reasonable instance of pronunciation at that
39、 stage, her whole family burst into laughter over my word stress. Moreover, this became a subject of teasing all through my visit, which even though well meant did cause me some frustration. Needless to say, my Polish is still at the beginner level.Van Lier (1996) agrees that sometimes intolerance o
40、f non-native-like speech prevails and native speakers put the onus back on the non-native speaker to bring their expression in line with the standard. This can lead to frustration on both sides, especially if the non-native speaker cannot bring forth the expected correct language. How that can affec
41、t the non-native speakers motivation is quite clear from my encounter with the Polish language. Yet, many language learners worldwide expose themselves willingly to such risks. They do so by temporarily or permanently moving to another country, often with the purpose of completing their tertiary edu
42、cation there. While in some technical degree programs the mastery of language perhaps plays second fiddle, and the effects of being a non-native speaker are minimised, in the humanities and social sciences language is the crucial factor influencing academic success, often to the disadvantage of the
43、non-native speaker.Just how devastating the criticism of ones second language could be is exemplified by the stories of many students I have encountered over the years in my English teaching career. Two such examples stand out. The first one is of a Japanese girl who kept sobbing for hours because t
44、he feedback to her essay said that some of her sentences could not be understood by the lecturer. Another example is of a student from a different Asian country12Artificial Intelligence in Second Language Learningwho having passed a certain English proficiency test decided that his English was good
45、enough and took any attempt on the part of the teachers to improve it very personally. I am not sure what had happened to the first student I just remember my very strong sense of concern for her. The second student, however, dropped out of at least four universities, his anger and frustration spira
46、lling. I was concerned about him, too.I was also deeply concerned about my apparent inability to do more for either of those students. I assume that most language teachers would have had similar moments of self-doubt, moments in which they wished that by magic they could have removed the often stigm
47、atising idiosyncrasies of their students language. My way of dealing with the issue was to resort to the magic of our time artificial intelligence. I thought that having a computer, which unlike some of their lecturers understood their erroneous language and offered remedy in a socially non-threatening way, would help. Thus I devoted a lot of my energy to developing what is considered to be a specimen of Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning (ICALL).The concept of artificial intelligence or AI is what sets certain software apart from computer pro
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