段落的构建.ppt

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1、The paragraphThe development of the paragraph11)Development by Time2Types of developing by time顺叙 depiction插叙 narration interposed倒叙 flashback3Transition wordAgo,formerly,just nowPresently,so farSoon,thereafter,henceSince,before,later,as soon as,after a whileMeanwhile,in the mean time,during,at the

2、same time,while42)Development by SpaceDeveloping a paragraph by space is to describe according to spatial order,for example,from left to right,from top to bottom,or from what is nearby to what is in the distance.It is often used to describe a place5A description of place in ONE paragraph ought to:1.

3、Have only ONE focus2.Be written without much of personal feeling3.Be written with strong feelings6We also need a topic sentence:It indicates:What is going to be describedWhat the writers attitude isWhat dominant impression the paragraph is to make7steps1.Choose your standpoint2.Decide by what kind o

4、f spatial order you write the paragraph.3.Use descriptive details:e.g.It is a rectangular(长方形的)with a white ceiling and green walls.The dark green walls and dirty white ceiling make the room seem dark,and thus even smaller than it is.8Useful expressionsLocational adverbs:here,there,everywhere,inside

5、,outsideLocational prepositions:over,beyond,in,at,by,nearLocational phrases:to the east,in the eastern part ofLocational verbs:is situated/located/found/surrounded by,encloses,surrounds,covers,extends,runs,flows93)Development by Process Developing a paragraph by process is a step-by-step description

6、 of how something is done.It is often used when describing an event.It follows the natural order in which the event take place.10Develop by process analysisTwo types of process analysis:Exclusive description of the procedures in a processDescription with supplementary explanations11Steps for develop

7、ing a process paragraph1.Choose a process that you are able to explain clearlyFamiliar and developableInteresting and explainable2.Collect all the information neededDo not overlook detailsDevelop by process analysis12Whenever.begin to do/start doing.First.then.finallyThen comes.After/before this.Now

8、.Signal the end of.At the beginning of.afterwards.some other.In advanceWhen all this is done.Useful expressions134)Development by citing statisticsWhat is citing statistics?Citing statistics is a way of developing a paragraph in which we use statistics to lend credibility to our arguments.In what ki

9、nd of essay do we use statistics?It is commonly used in research papers or similar writings.145)Development by Comparison and ContrastComparison and contrast are usually applied to things belonging to the same general class.They are used between two apparently similar things to reveal their signific

10、ant differences,or between two seemingly unrelated things to discover their similarities.15There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison and contrast.One is“block comparison(contrast)”,i.e.to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other.This method is also called“divided

11、 pattern of comparison”(A+B).The other way is“alternating comparison(contrast)”,i.e.to examine two things at the same time,discussing them point by point.This method is also called“alternating pattern of comparison”(A/B+A/B+).16Useful expressions for comparisonA is similar to B.A is like B.Like A,B

12、isBoth A and B areNeither A nor B.A resembles B(in that).A and B havein common.There aresimilarities between A and B.A;similarly,BCorrespondingly,.Likewise,In the same way,176)Development by ExemplificationExemplification refers to the use of examples in support of the main idea of the paragraph.18T

13、he purposes of exemplificationExamples can be used:1.To support a general topic statement2.To explain a difficult point or unfamiliar concept19The signal words for exemplificationFor example/for instanceTakefor exampleSuch as/likeis a case in point.One example is,another example is.20How to write a

14、paragraph by exemplificationThe topic sentence the topic sentence usually tells the readers the subject under discussion.In addition,it should point out the main idea of the paragraph.21Some examplesIn order to prevent no-smokers from being affected,measures must be taken to reduce the chances of sm

15、oking.Knowledge often results only after persistent investigation.My little niece,a ten-month-old baby,is the most lovely child I have never seen.22 The supporting sentences The supporting sentences usually provide several examples which center on the main idea stated in the topic sentence.When thin

16、king of the examples,we should:Select good examplesArrange the examples in a good order23Select good examplesGood examples should be specificGood examples should be appropriateGood examples should be interesting and lively24Sample:Television Television presents a vivid world in front of us.For examp

17、le,TV can keep us informed of what is happening throughout the world.For another example,with a TV set at home,we can visit a great many tourist attractions in different countries.Besides,TV brings various forms of entertainments to our homes such as sports competitions,concerts.The pictures on TV l

18、ook so real that we feel as if the events were taking place right before our eyes.257)Development by Cause and Effect26It is very common in our conversations.When we use this method,we should be very careful to explain an effect clearly and logically,because an effect may have many causes.Casual ana

19、lysis is a method of paragraph or essay development in which a writer analyzes the reasons for(and/or the consequences of)an action,event,or decision.27There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect.The first method is developing a paragraph in an“effect-cause”order,

20、i.e.to state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes.28Some other commonly used patterns of causal analysis:1)single cause-single effect2)single cause-many effects3)many causes-single effect4)cause chain5)mixed pattern298)Development by Definition What is definition?De

21、finition is a method of restricting,make clear,or identifying the meaning of a word or phrase.why do we need definition in our communication?By using definition,we can avoid confusion or misunderstanding of some symbols or ideas.30There are three basic ways to define a word or term:1)to give a synon

22、ym(近义词）2)To mend means to repair3)to use a sentence(often with an attribute clause)4)Ink is colored water which we use for writing.5)To write a paragraph or even an essay31Rules observed when giving a definitionWe should avoid circular definitions.We should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term t

23、o be defined is an abstract one.We should avoid loaded definitions.32How to write a paragraph developed by definitionThe topic sentence usually makes a definition.The supporting sentences give some examples to further explain the definition in the topic sentenceThe concluding sentence usually restat

24、es the main idea in the topic sentence.33The types of definitionformal definitionpersonal definitionextended definition34Formal definition According to Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary,here is the definition of Happiness:a state of well-being and contentment a pleasurable or satisfying experience

25、35Personal definition10 definitions of Happiness of some of the greatest minds in history1.Happiness is when what you think,what you say,and what you do are in harmony.-Mahatma Gandhi2.Happiness is that state of consciousness which proceeds from the achievement of ones values.-Ayn Rand3.Happiness is

26、 something that you are and it comes from the way you think.-Wayne Dyer 4.Happiness is essentially a state of going somewhere,wholeheartedly,one-directionally,without regret or reservation.-William H.Sheldon365.Happiness is not a reward-it is a consequence.-Robert Ingersoll6.Happiness is different f

27、rom pleasure.Happiness has something to do with struggling and enduring and accomplishing.-George Sheehan7.Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life,the whole aim and end of human existence.-Aristotle8.Happiness is not something you experience,its something you remember.-Oscar Levant9.Happine

28、ss is not a station you arrive at,but a manner of traveling.-Margaret Lee Runbeck10.Happiness is the spiritual experience of living every minute with love,grace and gratitude.-Denis Waitley 37 Extended definition means to use various other methods to define it.you will find that some of these method

29、s such as the uses of comparison/contrast,description,example,and so on.extended definition means to use various other methods to define it.you will find that some of these methods such as the uses of comparison/contrast,description,example,and so on.38Three qualities of effective classification:-co

30、nsistent-complete-significant39Signal words for classificationVerbs:Fall intoDivideintoGroupintoSortintoNouns:ClassGroupSortKindCategorytype40How to write a paragraph by classificationThe topic sentence If a paragraph starts with only a topic sentence,apart from a clear topic,the topic sentence for

31、a classifying paragraph should indicate the criterion of classification and the number of smaller groups into which our topic group is broken.However,the criterion of classification sometimes is omitted.41Some examples:Any good library should contain three basic types of materials.There are three ki

32、nds of book owners.The fifteen students of this class fall into three groups.The musical instruments can be divided into three main classes according to the way they are played.42Supporting sentences The supporting sentences in a classifying paragraph are parallel and are presented by listing.Theref

33、ore,generally speaking,the classifying paragraph is also a listing paragraph.we make a list of the items and discuss them one by one.We achieve coherence by using listing words.43The concluding sentence Generally speaking,you can end a paragraph developed by classification by restating the main idea

34、 in the topic sentence or summarizing the name of the exact categories in the supporting sentences.Sometimes the concluding sentence is unnecessary.44Rules of classificationApply our principle of classification consistentlyApply our principle of classification thoroughlyMake the categories logically distinct from each other and avoid overlapping of categories45