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1、Learning and Individual Differences 53 (2017) 3746 The role of puberty in students academic motivation and achievement Andrew J. Martin a, Katharine Steinbeck b a School of Education, University of New South Wales, Australia b Academic Department of Adolescent Medicine, University of Sydney, Austral
2、ia a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 8 February 2016 Received in revised form 7 September 2016 Accepted 13 November 2016 Available online xxxx Keywords: Puberty Puberty hormones Physical maturation Motivation Achievement a b s t r a c t This study investigates the relationship between
3、baseline puberty hormones, self-reported physical pubertal sta- tus, academic motivation, and academic achievement. Using structural equation modeling among a sample of 342 young people (1015 years of age), we examined a longitudinal model in which puberty hormones impact ones physical pubertal stat
4、us, pubertal status predicts subsequent academic motivation (self-efcacy and valu- ing of school), and both pubertal status and motivation predict academic achievement. We found that beyond the effects of covariates (age, school stage, gender), puberty hormones predicted pubertal status, more advanc
5、ed pu- bertal status (but not puberty hormones) was associated with lower self-efcacy and valuing, and lower self-ef- cacy and valuing were associated with lower achievement. Achievement was not signicantly predicted by hormones or pubertal status; rather, motivation explained the bulk of its varian
6、ce. These ndings show that more advanced physical pubertal status is associated with lower academic motivation that in turn is associated with lower achievement. Numerous indirect effects were found between hormones and motivation and achieve- ment via pubertal status and between pubertal status and
7、 achievement via motivation. With regards to covari- ates, ndings identied puberty as a potentially more salient factor in motivation than participants age, whether they are a boy or girl, or in elementary or high school. 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Adolescence is charact
8、erized by substantial biological, cognitive, so- cial-cognitive, and social-organizational changes that mark the begin- ning of the transition to emerging adulthood and which have signicant educational implications (Grumbach, 2002; Martin, Way, Bobis, & Anderson, 2015). Puberty is a hallmark of this
9、 developmental period (Blakemore, Burnett, & Dahl, 2010). Alongside the physiological (e.g., hormonal), physical, social, and emotional shifts occurring during adolescence, the onset of these changes are also associated with sub- stantial changes in drives and motivations that continue throughout ad
10、- olescence and into early adulthood (Blakemore et al., 2010). There is also evidence that puberty hormones play a role in brain and cognitive development (Blakemore et al., 2010). Thus, there are links between the endocrine system, the brain, and behavior that are relevant to un- derstanding adoles
11、cent development during puberty (Peper & Dahl, 2013; Smith, Chein, & Steinberg, 2013). However, with regards to young peoples academic development, these links are not well understood (Steinbeck et al., 2012), the The authors wish to thank the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council
12、(NHMRC; Grant # 1003312) for funding this research. The authors would also sensitivity of older hormone testing methods is questionable (Rosner, Hankinson, Sluss, Vesper, & Wierman, 2013; Wartofsky & Handelsman, 2010), and the effects of puberty are often confounded with the effects of other develop
13、mental indicators (e.g., age). Moreover, in educational psychology, very little research has included hormones and puberty in analytic designs; hence, their place and role in the edu- cational process is an area in need of investigation. Accordingly, the present study contributes to the area in seek
14、ing to identify the associa- tions between more up-to-date serum gonadal hormone levels (testos- terone and estradiol), pubertal status,1 academic motivation (self- efcacy and valuing), and academic achievement (see Fig. 1). The study also seeks to extend prior research by modeling hormones and pube
15、rtal status alongside age, school stage (elementary vs. high school), and gender with a view to disentangling the effects of puberty from the effects of these other developmental indicators. 1.1. Pubertal mechanisms and a proposed academic process model There are a number of ways that puberty might
16、impact behavioral and cognitive outcomes in education, with two particularly inuential processes: hormonal changes and physical maturation. In terms of like to thank Mrs. Karen Paxton and Dr. Georgina Luscombe for assistance with instrument design, recruitment, data collection, and data processing.
17、* Corresponding author at: School of Education, University of New South Wales, NSW 2052, Australia. E-mail address: andrew.martinunsw.edu.au (A.J. Martin). 1 Pubertal status refers to ones level of physical maturation and stage of physical devel- opment in puberty. This is distinct from pubertal tim
18、ing which refers to whether ones physical maturation is on time, early or late; and, pubertal tempo which refers to the speed with which one moves through the pubertal stages (Dubas et al., 1991). http:/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.11.003 1041-6080/ 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Conten
19、ts lists available at ScienceDirect Learning and Individual Differences journal homepage: www. locate/lindif 38 A.J. Martin, K. Steinbeck / Learning and Individual Differences 53 (2017) 3746 Fig. 1. Hypothesized model of hormones, pubertal status, motivation, and achievement. Notes. All substantive
20、 parameters represented in gure; Model controls for covariates (age, stage of school, gender) and also the correlation between Time 2 pubertal status and Time 2 motivation. hormones, it is possible that changes in hormone concentration may increase an adolescents arousal or emotional lability. In tu
21、rn, their re- sponses to adults (e.g., teachers, parents) may be more variable and unpredictable (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992; Paikoff & Brooks-Gunn, 1991). It has also been suggested that rising gonadal hor- mones may sensitize the brains reward system, making adolescents more receptive and re
22、active to rewards that may impact motivation and behavior (Peper & Dahl, 2013). In terms of physical changes and maturation, it may also be the case that pubertal changes impact outcomes through shifts in secondary sex characteristics that are salient to others and which carry particular mean- ing a
23、nd assumptions (e.g., about pubertal adolescents). In turn, these assumptions may impact interactions that others (e.g., teachers, parents) have with adolescents that may be relevant to their motivation and aca- demic development. Thus, there may be changes in self and others expec- tations, includi
24、ng self-efcacy and valuing of school, that in turn impact achievement (Martin, 2007, 2009). According to Nottelmann, Susman, Blue, et al. (1987a), Nottelmann, Susman, Inoff-Germain, et al. (1987b), hormones may inuence adolescent psychological adjustment directly, and also indirectly via effects on
25、physical maturation and, in turn, the response of adolescents and others to these maturational changes. In explaining the processes by which puberty impacts outcomes, some have suggested the stage termination hypothesis (e.g., see Petersen & Taylor, 1980) that describes the termination of physical c
26、hildhood that is then associated with problematic psychosocial out- comes. Thus, (early) maturation places adolescents at risk of develop- mental problems because they engage in activities and roles for which they have not yet developed the appropriate adaptive skills (Williams & Currie, 2000). Rela
27、ted to this, with puberty comes a normative change in self-concept that has a more adult-oriented perspective that in some cases may have adolescents seeing themselves as “all grown up” and rejecting academic conventions and teacher authority. Indeed, this is in line with psychosocial acceleration t
28、heory that has shown physical maturation associated with increased risk behaviors by way of smoking and drinking at an earlier age (Arm, Tramonte, Shapka, Dahinten, & Willms, 2011). Thus, for some students in this period, puberty signi- cantly impacts high school trajectories (Cavanagh, Riegle-Crumb
29、, & Crosnoe, 2007). Taken together, puberty creates a “neurobehavioral nudge” toward exploring these social complexities that in turn can promote adaptive learning across adolescence. At the same time, however, puberty also has potential to create vulnerability to negative developmental trajecto- ri
30、es (Peper & Dahl, 2013). The present study explores this by way of the role of puberty on young peoples academic motivation and achieve- ment. We hypothesize a model in which hormones give rise to young peoples pubertal status (ones physical and therefore visible stage of pubertal development), pube
31、rtal status predicts academic motivation (self-efcacy and valuing), and motivation predicts academic achieve- ment (see Fig. 1). Each of these proposed links is now discussed. 1.2. Hormones and puberty In terms of causal ordering, hormonal changes precede physical maturation changes (i.e., pubertal
32、status). Adrenarche generally pre- cedes gonadarche by a few years, with a rise in weak androgens in both sexes. The physical changes of puberty are driven primarily by the estradiol and testosterone rises of gonadarche marking the activa- tion of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, ending with
33、 reproduc- tive competence (see Dorn & Biro, 2011; Grumbach, 2002). This process commences in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormones (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. This activates pituitary production of luteiniz- ing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in both sexes. In turn, LH
34、and FSH activate maturational changes in the gonads that attain reproductive capacity. Maturing ovaries and testes secrete increasing amounts of gonadal steroids, with estradiol and testosterone the primary hormones respectively. Increases in gonadal steroids prompt change in the reproductive organs
35、, and the development and appearance of secondary sex characteristics (Blakemore et al., 2010; Peper & Dahl, 2013; Susman & Rogol, 2004). Importantly, hormonal changes occur quite early in the pubertal process (Buchanan et al., 1992) and longitudinal measures of serum hormones in community samples a
36、re difcult to collect with adequate frequency to determine patterns of puberty change. Thus, alternate measures to describe the physical changes of puberty are generally used to capture individual variance through puberty which may take 25 years to complete. Many puberty studies have relied on physi
37、cal staging of puberty alone using Tanner staging (Tanner & Whitehouse, 1976; see also Petersens development scale as a modication of Tanner staging; Petersen, Crockett, Richards, & Boxer, 1988). Accordingly, hor- mone measurement and staging assessment (e.g., using Tanner stages, such as in this st
38、udysee Method section) may be used in the one re- search design, with hormones being the proximal inuence on pubertal status (Blakemore et al., 2010) and both being considered in terms of their association with motivation. According to Nottelmann et al. (1987a), Nottelmann et al. (1987b), hormones c
39、an operate indepen- dently of physical pubertal status. For example, there is a time lag (of months to years) between the rise of hormone levels and the appear- ance of secondary sex characteristics. Thus, different psychosocial ad- justment may occur for hormone levels than for physical pubertal st
40、atus. It is also the case that there are many biochemical and neurotrans- mitter processes relevant to puberty, not simply hormones such as tes- tosterone and estradiol levels (the two hormones in our study) (Peper & Dahl, 2013). Additionally, while there is good correlation between Time 1 Pubertal
41、Status Time 2 Academic Self-efficacy Time 2 Achievement Time 2 Valuing of School Baseline Hormones A.J. Martin, K. Steinbeck / Learning and Individual Differences 53 (2017) 3746 39 gonadal hormones and Tanner pubertal status, for each of the Tanner stages there is a range of hormone levels. Indeed,
42、correlations between hormone levels and pubertal status vary across studies (Nottelmann et al., 1987a). Furthermore, people vary in their sensitivity to hormone levels, which may be due to intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Booth, Johnson, Granger, Crouter, & McHale, 2003) and thus sole reliance on ho
43、rmones in a research design may be prone to error without comple- mentary pubertal indices. In some ways, then, pubertal status (physical maturation during pu- berty) may be a better indicator (than hormones) of the totality of bio- chemical and neurotransmitter factors and processes during puberty
44、as it tends to represent the conuence of all these factors and processes. It is certainly the easiest to measure and of considerable relevance in the translation of research ndings where self-report of puberty status might be the only option (Rasmussen et al., 2015). Adolescents are rea- sonably acc
45、urate in self-staging in most studies (Hergenroeder, Hill, Wong, Sangi-Haghpeykar, & Taylor, 1999). According to Buchanan et al. (1992), physical maturation results from complex interactions be- tween hormones and the individuals genetics, and of course hormones vary across pubertal development and
46、with age. Thus, the sole reliance on hormones as a developmental/pubertal measure, particularly if not taken with adequate frequency may not yield the most complete pic- ture, leading to the desirability of incorporating additional indicators of pubertal development, such as physical pubertal status
47、 as in the pres- ent study. Taken together, it is evident that assessing hormones and physical pubertal status in the one analytic design is important. It is also evident that hormonal development undergirds pubertal status. 1.3. Puberty and academic processes and outcomes Most of the research inves
48、tigating the effects of puberty has focused on non-academic areas (e.g., risk behavior, general self-esteem and mood and behavior disturbances) and with limited ndings (Balzer, Duke, Hawke, & Steinbeck, 2015; Duke, Balzer, & Steinbeck, 2014). The small body of work into academic outcomes has shown t
49、hat early ma- turing girls report higher levels of school problems (Aro & Taipale, 1987; Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997), receive lower grades, and have a higher probability of course failure at the start of high school (Cavanagh et al., 2007). Although Simmons and Blyth (1987) found no signicant effect of pubertal timing on boys achieve- ment and school problems, early maturing girls received lower grades and reported being in trouble at school more than later
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