英语修辞写作—语法修辞篇 参考材料 Section 4 (3).docx

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1、Section 4 The Qualities of Discourse (2): Substantiality, Emphasis, Balance, Variation and AppropriatenessI. Key to the Exercise1. Do paragraphs and discourses have something in common concerning their qualities? Why?Find out the answers from the lecture.2. Are discoursal qualities vastly different

2、from those of paragraphs? Why? Find out the answers from the lecture.3. What is discoursal substantiality? Give one or two examples from the sample or lecture or your own reading to illustrate it.Find out the answer and examples by yourself.4. What is discoursal emphasis? Give one or two examples fr

3、om the sample or lecture or your own reading to illustrate it.Find out the answer and examples by yourself.5. What is discoursal balance? Give one or two examples from the sample or lecture or your own reading to illustrate it.Find out the answer and examples by yourself.6. What is discoursal variat

4、ion? Give one or two examples from the sample or lecture or your own reading to illustrate it.Find out the answer and examples by yourself.7. What is discoursal appropriateness? Give one or two examples from the sample or lecture or your own reading to illustrate it.Find out the answer and examples

5、by yourself.8. Read the following article and explain how discoursal substantiality, emphasis, balance, variation and appropriation have been achieved.IL Translation of the Sample TextOpen.III. Supplementary Samples1. Sample (1)multiple languages and cultures effortlessly because he knows them intim

6、ately. China writes about cities because he dwells in them completely. London is not so different from his fantastical cities. And Gord is so immersed in Korean culture it cant help but ooze onto the page in a totally engaging way.I struggle with richness in particular because Im not sure theres any

7、 way to learn richness other than to immerse yourself in a subject like they do. I think the reason many new writers work fall flat for me is because the only thing they are immersing themselves in is writing and SF/F. The mark of someone who really wants to get out there seems to be someone who tak

8、es passion for something else and really drives that home in a story.There may be veins of richness to tap into from my life, but Im not sure. It leaves me wishing I could pack up and do some foreign travel for six months all while reading travelogues and history books. I feel like I just dont have

9、enough packed into my brain that isnt about computers and web design that can be used to enrich my work.So thats the next big thing Im working on in improving my writing. Whats yours?Comments1 9:55 am, 07-29-2009, tychoishRichness, as you put it, is something that comes from being passionate about s

10、omething, about seeking diverse experiences, about learning and asking questions, about not simply asking “what if” but running with that question beyond the realm of the reasonble and into something thats extrodinary and fantastic.And we see that a lot in people who get to travel to strange new pla

11、ces, in people who have exciting lives, and experiences of which we are envious. But I dont think passion and curiosity, and imaginations are functions of the privlidge to travel, or the good fortune to live in exciting times. Indeed traveling and exiciting times are sometimes very much a product of

12、 having that kind of imagination, rather than the other way around.The other thing, that I think happens is that we see richness and literary merit in other peoples work and dont really see that sort of thing in our own work, but I think a big part of this is that literary merit is something that ge

13、ts determined by other people. Richness is something that we see when another writer gives us a glimpse into their heads. We dont get to determine the literary merit of our own work, and were already in our own heads.2 7:43 pm, 07-29-2009, Luke BurrageThis post really struck a nerve with me. Im in t

14、he planning stages of my next novel, and have chosen a story idea that has been banging about in my head for a long time. One of the main characters is a juggler, among other things, and some scenes necessarily take place at a juggling event. As it happens, Im a juggler. I have been juggling for 18

15、years, and Ive been involved in the juggling sub-culture for about 10.So many people say write what you know, but as you say, I think the reason many new writers work fall flat for me is because the only thing they are immersing themselves in is writing and SF/FTHow many people are interested in rea

16、ding about juggling? Ive no idea. But Tm in a privileged position here! I can take the most interesting characters and events and places and people and sights and smells and feelings from a decade of my life and share them. Fictionalized, of course, but the richness, as you say, is something I wante

17、d to get.Other elements I hope will be rich: one characters back story is similar to my fathers, so Fil be taking stories he told me of his days in the army. Again, not the actual stories, but the feel of them.The richness: the same character also gets involved with religion. My own upbringing in a

18、fundamentalist Christian family should help with this aspect.As I said, your post provides exactly the confidence boost about these creative/worldbuilding decisions that I need right now.PS (after reading the above comment): I travel a lot, but never really think about incorporating those places int

19、o my work as locations. I should!3 9:52 pm, 07-29-2009, David MolesThanks, Jer. Good to know its coming through.But I feel honor-bound to point out that you live in one of the most beautiful and, from the point of view of much of the world, exotic places in the Northern Hemisphere, filled with some

20、of the worlds most beautiful and exotic creatures, and you spend your spare time looking at it / them very, very, very closely. We all tend to discount our advantages but there9s got to be something you can work with, there.4 10:12 pm, 07-29-2009, Jeremiah TolbertThanks, David. You have a good point

21、. Colorados beautiful and all, but it doesnt seem to inspire me to write so far.3. Guide (3)The New Literacy: Stanford Study Finds Richness andComplexity in Students WritingStanford Report, October 12, 2009, BY CYNTHIA HAVENContrary to conventional wisdom, Stanford researcher Andrea Lunsford finds t

22、hat todays students are writing more than ever before - but it may not look like the writing of yesterday.Todays kids dont just write for grades anymore. They write to shake the world.Moreover, they are writing more than any previous generation, ever, in history. They navigate in a bewildering new a

23、rena where writers and their audiences have merged.These are among the startling findings in the Stanford Study of Writing, spearheaded by Professor Andrea Lunsford, director of Stanford 9s Program in Writing and Rhetoric. The study refutes conventional wisdom and provides a wholly new context for t

24、hose who wonder whether Google is making us stupid and whether Facebook is frying our brains J said Lunsford.The five-year study investigated the writing of Stanford students during their undergraduate careers and their first year afterward, whether at a job or in graduate school.The study began in

25、September 2001, when Lunsford invited a random sample of the freshman class to participate in the study. Of the 243 invited, 189 accepted the invitation - about 12 percent of that years class.Students agreed to submit the writing they did for all their classes, including multimedia presentations, pr

26、oblem sets, lab reports and honors theses. They also submitted as much as they wanted of what Lunsford calls “life writing J that is, the writing they did for themselves, their families, their friends and the world at large.Lunsford was unprepared for the avalanche of material that ensued: about 15,

27、000 pieces of writing, including emails in 11 languages, blog postings, private journal entries and poetry. The last, in particular, surprised her: If theres any closeted group at Stanford, its poets.”Only 62 percent of the writing was for their classwork.While data analysis is ongoing, Lunsford sai

28、d the studys first goal was “to paint a picture of the writing that these young writers do“ and to portray “its richness and complexity.Her conclusion: Although todays kids are writing more than ever before in history,“ it may not look like the writing of yesterday. The focus of today 5s writing is

29、more about instantaneous communication. Its also about audience.Writing as vehicle of changeFor these students, Good writing changes something. It doesn5t just sit on the page. It gets up, walks off the page and changes something/9 whether its a website or a poster for a walkathon.More than earlier

30、generations, said Lunsford, “Young people today are aware of the precarious nature of our lives. They understand the dangers that await us. Hence, Writing is a way to get a sense of power.”Twenty-six-year-old Mark Otuteye, one of 36 students in the study group who agreed to be interviewed once a yea

31、r, is in many ways representative. While at Stanford, he started a performance poetry group in response to 2003 student protests against growing involvement in Iraq.Academic writing seemed to be divorced from a public audience. I was used to communicating not only privately, with emails, but publicl

32、y, with websites, blogs and social networks,“ said Otuteye, CEO of AES Connect, a social media design company (hes also worked at Google).“I was used to writing transactionally - not just for private reflection, but writing to actually get something done in the world. For Otuteye, a half-Ghanaian st

33、udent in the Program in African and African American Studies who went on to get a Stanford masters degree in modern thought and literature (2005) and, with a Marshall Scholarship, a masters degree from the University of Sussex in artificial intelligence (2008), academic writing was often “less impor

34、tanf5 than his writing for the “real world” - for example, the fliers he put up all over Stanford to promote his poetry group.Lunsford cautioned that audiences are very slippery,“ and that, in the Internet age, “in a way the whole world can be your audience. Its inspirational, really, but its hard t

35、o know who they are or what theyll do.”Anyone anywhere can be an overnight pundit with an audience of millions -or can ramble on in an unregarded cyberspace tirade. A lively blog “conversation“ may consist largely of one writer assuming different masks. Does much of this writing, moreover, trap them

36、 in a world of other 19-year-olds, their peers?Audiences change overtimeOtuteye noted that the students in the study were already writing for professors, friends and parents. Moreover, as they transition into the work world after graduation, they begin to see “those audiences begin to mix and overla

37、p. All the communication that they do online, with the exception of email, can become public.”“The skill of being able to manage multiple, overlapping audiences is a principle of rhetoric, a skill I was able to hone and perfect not only in academic writing, but in the performance writing I did and a

38、ll the rhetorical activity I was engaged in at Stanford.”He said that even the computer code he writes now follows “the same principles of rhetoric, specifically around audience, that is used in poetry and academic writing75 A line of code, he said, could have four or more audiences, including other

39、 engineers and computers.Lunsford underscored the need for higher education to adapt; for example, students could post their essays online, accommodating their preference for an audience and online discussion.But Lunsford said adaptation must go even further: What does an English professor say when

40、a student approaches her and says, I know youd like me to write an essay, but Id like to make a documentary?In light of this brave new world, it can be hard to remember that only a few decades ago doomsday prophets were predicting the death of the written word, as telephones and television increased

41、 their domination over a culture, and business CEOs dictated their letters into Dictaphones.In those days, graduation from college largely meant goodbye to writing. An office memo, letters or annotated cookbooks“ were about the only written expressions of the adult world, said Lunsford, unless they

42、were headed for jobs in the media or in academia. Writing was “instrumental” - designed for a purpose, such as a purchasing agreement, or advertising to sell a product.Redefining “writing”Todays landscape alters fundamental notions of what writing is. According to Lunsford, “The everyday understandi

43、ng of writing is usually operational as opposed to epistemic.”Epistemic writing creates knowledge. (Think of all those times when you dont know what to think till you begin writing.) Such epistemic writing is an exploration, rather than declaration. Its the writing that dominates journals, letters a

44、nd many blogs. Clearly, the students9 sense of agency extends to self-knowledge as well as changing the world.Comparing the Stanford students5 writing with their peers from the mid- 1980s, Lunsford found that the writing of todays students is about three times as long -they have “the ability to gene

45、rate more prose/5They are also likely to make different kinds of errors. The number one error 20 years ago was spelling - a problem easily circumvented today by a spellchecker. Todays number one error is using the wrong word 一 constraint” instead of constrained J for example, or using the wrong prep

46、osition.Lunsford recalls one student writing I feel necrotic rather than neurotic.”Some nevertheless insist that writing today is substandard, littered with too many LOLs and OMGs. However, Lunsford noted that Stanford students were adept at different writing for different audiences. Moreover, they

47、are changing the game: For a graphic novel such as Chris Wares Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, traditional reading strategies do not work. Every single word is important. And websites, though they can be skimmed with a click, can be very labor- and thought-intensive.College writers need t

48、o be able to retain the best of print literacy, and know how to deploy it for their own purposes J said Lunsford. “They also need and deserve to be exposed to new forms of expression.”With the more playful, inventive and spontaneous forms of writing available to them, are todays students losing the

49、taste for more complex English?“Every time I pick up Henry James, I have to relearn how to read Henry James. We dont want to lose the ability to do that kind of reading and writing,“ said Lunsford.Thinking about hard things requires hard prose. We can boil things down, prepare for a different audiences, but when it comes to hard things, I dont thin