英语修辞写作—语法修辞篇 参考材料 Section 2 (3).docx

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1、Section 2 The Structure of Discourse (2):The Multi-paragraph Discourse1. Key to the Exercise2. What is a discourse or composition? What is the basic structure of a discourse or composition? Analyze the structure of the sample text.Find out the answers from the lecture.3. What are the respective func

2、tions of the different parts (the beginning, the body, and the ending) of a discourse or composition? Cite examples from the sample text to illustrate your points.Find out the answers from the lecture.4. Point out the respective ways used to begin the discourses in the following paragraphs.Open.5. P

3、oint out the respective ways used to end the discourses in the following paragraphs.Open.IL Translation of the Sample TextOpen.III. Supplementary SamplesNorthumberland Park DepotThe Victoria line5s Northumberland Park Depot takes its name from the Earl of Northumberlands former estate and is unique

4、in being located away from the line it serves. It is situated north of Tottenham Hale station, alongside the National Rail line between Liverpool Street and Bishops Stortford, and is the only above-ground section of the Victoria line.It is the busiest line on the entire Underground network, which is

5、 not surprising given that it serves the three busiest stations - Victoria, Oxford Circus and Kingsthe cherries - flocks of birds that enjoyed them as much as I did and would perch all over the tree, devouring the fruit whenever I wasnt there. I used to wonder why the grown-ups never ate any of the

6、cherries; but actually when the birds and I had finished, there werent many left.No sentence is completely irrelevant to the general topic of this paragraph (the cherry tree), but the sentences Behind the yard was an alley and then more houses and My mother always worried about my falling out of the

7、 tree, but I never did do not develop the specific idea in the first sentence: enjoyment of the cherry tree.Shift in FocusiIt is a fact that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime.2Statistics show that in states with capital punishment, murder rates are the same or almost the same as in stat

8、es without capital punishment. 3It is also true that it is more expensive to put a person on death row than in life imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security. 4Unfortunately, capital punishment has been used unjustly.5Statistics show that every execution is of a man and that nine outOnce

9、 again, no sentence in this paragraph (to the left) is completely irrelevant to the general topic (capital punishment), but the specific focus of this paragraph shifts abruptly twice. The paragraph starts out with a clear claim in sentence 1: It is a fact that capital punishment is not a deterrent t

10、o crime. Sentence 2 provides evidence in support of the initial claim: Statistics show that in states with capital punishment, murder rates are the same or almost the same as in states without capital punishment. Sentence 3, however, shifts the focus from capital punishment as a deterrent to crime t

11、o the cost of incarceration: It is also true that it is more expensive to put a person on death row than in life imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security. Sentence 4 once again shifts the focus, this time to issues of justice: Unfortunately, capital punishment has been used unjustly. Se

12、ntences 5 and 6, Statistics show that every execution is of a man and that nine out often are black and So prejudice shows right through, follow from 4 if one believes that executing men and blacks is in fact evidence of injustice and prejudice. More importantly, however,of ten are black. 6So prejud

13、ice shows right through.we are now a long way off from the original claim, that capital punishment does not deter crime. The focus has shifted from deterrence to expense to fairness.The following paragraph on the same topic is much more effectively focused and unified:叮he punishment of criminals has

14、 always been a problem for society. 2Citizens have had to decide whether offenders such as first-degree murderers should be killed in a gas chamber, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in society. 3Many citizens argue that serious criminals should be executed. 4They belie

15、ve that killing criminals will set an example for others and also rid society of a cumbersome burden. 5Other citizens say that no one has the right to take a life and that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. 6They believe that society as well as the criminal is responsible for the crimes

16、 and that killing the criminal does not solve the problems of either society or the criminal.Sentence 1 puts forth the main claim: The punishment of criminals has always been a problem for society. Sentence 2 specifies the exact nature of the problem by listing societys choices: Citizens have had to

17、 decide whether offenders such as first-degree murderers should be killed in a gas chamber, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in society. Sentence 3 further develops the topic by stating one point of view: Many citizens argue that serious criminals should be executed. T

18、he reasons for this point of view are then provided in sentence 4: They believe that killing criminals will set an example for others and also rid society of a cumbersome burden. Sentence 5 states an opposing point of view: Other citizens say that no one has the right to take a life and that capital

19、 punishment is not a deterrent to crime. Sentence 6 states the reason for the opposing point of view: They believe that society as well as the criminal is responsible for the crimes and that killing the criminal does not solve the problems of either society or the criminal.Topic SentencesAll three p

20、aragraphs start out well with a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea or claim controls the rest of the paragraph; the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the topic sentences main idea or claim. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of

21、 a paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come, for example, after a transition sentence; it may even come at the end of a paragraph.Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need a topic sentence. For example, paragraphs that describe, narrate, or detail t

22、he steps in an experiment do not usually need topic sentences. Topic sentences are useful, however, in paragraphs that analyze and argue. Topic sentences are particularly useful for writers who have difficulty developing focused, unified paragraphs (i.e., writers who tend to sprawl). Topic sentences

23、 help these writers develop a main idea or claim for their paragraphs, and, perhaps most importantly, they help these writers stay focused and keep paragraphs manageable.Topic sentences are also useful to readers because they guide them through sometimes complex arguments. Many well-known, experienc

24、ed writers effectively use topic sentences to bridge between paragraphs. Heres an example of how one professional writer does this:Soon after the spraying had ended there were unmistakable signs that all was not well. Within two days dead and dying fish, including many young salmon, were found along

25、 the banks of the stream. Brook trout also appeared among the dead fish, and along the roads and in the woods birds were dying. All the life of the stream was stilled. Before the spraying there had been a rich assortment of the water life that forms the food of salmon and trout - caddis fly larvae,

26、living in loosely fitting protective cases of leaves, stems or gravel cemented together with saliva, stonefly nymphs clinging to rocks in the swirling currents, and the wormlike larvae of blackflies edging the stones under riffles or where the stream spills over steeply slanting rocks. But now the s

27、tream insects were dead, killed by DDT, and there was nothing for a young salmon to eat.Rachel Carson, Silent SpringThe first part of Carsons topic sentence - Soon after the spraying had ended - is a transitional clause that looks back to the previous topic: DDT spraying.Topic sentences often begin

28、with such transitional clauses referring to the previous paragraph. The second part of the topic sentence - there were unmistakable signs that all was not well - shapes and controls what follows. This kind of bridging helps the reader follow Carsons argument. Notice, too, how Carson further helps th

29、e reader follow her argument by providing a more focused version of the topic sentence later in the paragraph - All the life of the stream was stilled. This sentence tells us exactly what Carson meant by all was not well.3. Guide (3)How to Organize an Essay:Methods of Paragraph DevelopmentUnderstand

30、ing methods of paragraph development will improve your organization in writing.Organization in WritingWhen teachers mention organization in writing, they limit themselves to rudimentary concepts, mentioning the obviousthere should be a beginning, middle, and an end, for example. There9s more to orga

31、nization in writing, however, than having an introduction, body, and conclusion. It involves understanding and using different methods of paragraph development. Although understanding the components of an essay are important, one must go beyond the introduction, body, and conclusion. The skilled wri

32、ter thinks in paragraphs. Here are two standard structures:1. Tightly structured paragraphs are most common in the work place. They consist of 2-4 sentences. A tightly structured paragraph has three components: a topic, development, and a resolution.2. Common structured paragraphs are found often in

33、 persuasive writing. They follow three simple steps: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. A persuasive paragraph contains more development than a tightly structured paragraph.Methods of Paragraph DevelopmentRegardless of which of the following methods of paragraph development you use,

34、 a well written paragraph has unity, coherence, and development, which means subordinate ideas must be linked to major ideas. The ideas must relate, be logical, and contain sufficient supporting details.The following methods of paragraph development will improve your organization in writing: Example

35、s: The more specific your writing, the more impact it will have. Using examples to develop your paragraph allows the writer to include specific details. Anecdotes, analogies, and metaphors are also effective. Process: A process paragraph is a step-by-step analysis of how to do something. Although mo

36、notonous, process paragraphs are the simplest way to explain how to do something. Division and Classification: Most effective for comparing and contrasting, organizing your paragraph using this method will highlight similarities and/or differences. Comparison and Analogy: When explaining difficult c

37、oncepts, use something with which the reader is likely to be familiar and compare it to the concept in question. For example, Marriage works best (difficult concept) when husband and wife are pulling in the same direction, not unlike two horses pulling a wagon over a bumpy field (easily understood c

38、omparison). Cause and Effect: A cause and effect paragraph can be organized in two ways: (1) Identify the effect in the topic sentence and write about its causes; or (2) write about the cause in the topic sentence and write about its effects.Writing Tips Your Teacher Never Told YouDramatically impro

39、ve your writing with simple changes.1. Writing Tips: Personal Voice ie Writing2. Essay Writing Tips: Make Every Word Count3. Improve Writing by Improving Word Choice4. How to Organize an Essay: Methods of Paragraph Development5. How to Write a Persuasive Essay: Persuasive Writing Tips4. Guide (4)Par

40、agraph developmentenglisl/iforuniversity. coin/Example paragraph from an essay on capital punishment (complete essay here):The main arguments in favour of restoring the death penalty are those of deterrence and retribution; the theory is that people will be dissuaded from violent crime if they know

41、they will face the ultimate punishment and that people should face the same treatment that they gave out to others. Statistics show that when the death penalty was temporarily withdrawn in Britain between 1965 and 1969 the murder rate increased by 125% (Clark, 2005). However, we need to consider the

42、 possibility that other reasons might have lead to this rise. Amnesty International (1996) claims that it is impossible to prove that capital punishment is a greater deterrent than being given a life sentence in prison and that evidence.gives no support to the evidence hypothesis theory. It seems at

43、 best that the deterrence theory is yet to be proven. The concept of retribution9 is an interesting one: there is a basic appeal in the simple phrase the punishment should fit the crime9. Calder (2003) neatly summarises this argument when he says that killers give up their rights when they kill and

44、that if punishments are too lenient then it shows that we undervalue the right to live. There are other points too in support of the death penalty, one of these being cost. It is obviously far cheaper to execute prisoners promply rather than feed and house them for years on end.Lets take the paragra

45、ph apart and look it carefully:Part 1: The main arguments in favour of restoring the death penalty are those of deterrence and retribution; the theory is that people will be dissuaded from violent crime if they know they will face the ultimate punishment and that people should face the same treatmen

46、t that they gave out to others.The paragraph starts with a topic sentence. This gives us a strong argument and tells us what the paragraph is about. We know the paragraph is about arguments in favour of the death penalty, and in particular, the ideas of deterrence andretribution.Part 2: Statistics s

47、how that when the death penalty was temporarily withdrawn in Britain between 1965 and 1969 the murder rate increased by 125% (Clark, 2005).Here an outside source is used to support the ideas in the topic sentence.Part 3: However, we need to consider the possibility that other reasons might have lead

48、 to this rise. Amnesty International (1996) claims that it is impossible to prove that capital punishment is a greater deterrent than being given a life sentence in prison and that evidence.gives no support to the evidence hypothesis theory. It seems at best that the deterrence theory is yet to be p

49、roven.Here, the argument about deterrence is discussed. This part is difficult - and this is where you get the high marks in your essays! You have presented an argument in part 1, supported it in part 2, now analyse and discuss it! Does all the evidence support the argument? What are its strong and weak points?You will notice that the paragraph continues with another argument:The concept of retribution9 is an interesting