2021年思辨黑体字英.pdf

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1、Unit1 Notes:Moral subjectivism:The idea that what is right and wrong is merely a matter of subjective opinion,that thinking something is right or wrong makes it right or wrong for that individual.Issue:A point that is or might be disputed,debated,or wondered about.Essentially,a question.Argument:An

2、attempt to support or prove a contention by providing a reason for accepting it.The contention itself is called the conclusion;the statement(or statements)offered as support or demonstration is referred to as the premise(or premises).Sometimes“argument”is used to refer only to the premise(or premise

3、s).Premise:The claim or claims in an argument thought to support or demonstrate a conclusion.Conclusion:In an argument,the claim thought to be supported or demonstrated by another claim(or claims)referred to as the premise(or premises).Belief bias:The tendency to evaluate an argument by how believab

4、le its conclusion is.Confirmation bias:A tendency to attach more weight to considerations that support our views.精品w o r d 学习资料 可编辑资料-精心整理-欢迎下载-第 1 页，共 21 页Heuristic:A rule of thumb employed unconsciously by people when they estimate probabilities.In psychology,the field known as“heuristics and bias

5、es”was originated by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky.Availability heuristic:Unconsciously assigning a probability to a type of event on the basis of how often one thinks of events of that type.False consensus effect:Assuming that the views held by members of our group are held by society at large B

6、andwagon effect:An unconscious tendency to modify ones views to make them consonant with those of other people.Negativity bias:An unconscious tendency to give more weight to negative evaluations than to positive evaluations.Loss aversion:Being more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a

7、 gain.In-group bias:A predisposition to find fault with outsiders.Fundamental attribution error:A tendency to attribute the mistakes of members of the in-group to extenuating circumstances,while attributing the same mistakes when made by members of out-groups to character defects Obedience to author

8、ity:The tendency to comply with instructions from an authority even when they conflict with our values.Overconfidence effect:A tendency to overestimate the percentage of correct answers we have given to questions on a subject we are not experts about.Better-than-average illusion:When a majority of a

9、 group estimates they are 精品w o r d 学习资料 可编辑资料-精心整理-欢迎下载-第 2 页，共 21 页文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ

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14、1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D

15、5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2better at something than a majority of the group,the group is said to be subject to this illusion.When the majo

16、rity of a group estimates they are worse at something than a majority of group,they are said to be subject to the“worse than average illusion.”Recap Claim:When a belief(judgment,opinion)is asserted in a declarative sentence,the result is a claim,statement,or assertion.?Objective claim vs.subjective

17、claim:An objective claim is true or false regardless of whether people think it is true or false.Claims that lack this property are said to be subjective.?“Fact vs.opinion”:People sometimes refer to true objective claims as“facts,”and use the word“opinion”to designate any claim that is subjective.?“

18、Factual claim”:An objective claim.Saying that a claim is“factual”is not the same as saying it is true.A factual claim is simply a claim whose truth does not depend on our thinking it is true.?Moral subjectivism:Moral subjectivism is the idea that moral judgments are subjective.“There is nothing eith

19、er good or bad but that thinking makes it so.”?Issue:A question.?Argument:An argument consists of two partsone part of which(the premise or premises)is intended to provide a reason for accepting the other part(the conclusion).精品w o r d 学习资料 可编辑资料-精心整理-欢迎下载-第 3 页，共 21 页文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ

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26、1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2?“Argument”:People sometimes use this word to refer just to an arguments premise.?Arguments and issues:The conclusion of an argument states a position on the issue under consideration.?Cognitive bias:A feature o

27、f human psychology that skews belief formation.The ones discussed in this chapter include the following:Belief bias:Evaluating reasoning by how believable its conclusion is.Confirmation bias:A tendency to attach more weight to considerations that support our views.Availability heuristic:Assigning a

28、probability to an event based on how easily or frequently it is thought of.False consensus effect:Assuming our opinions and those held by people around us are shared by society at large.Bandwagon effect:The tendency to align our beliefs with those of other people.Negativity bias:Attaching more weigh

29、t to negative information than to positive information.Loss aversion:Being more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a gain.In-group bias:A set of cognitive biases that make us view people who belong to our group differently from people who dont.Fundamental attribution error:Having one

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36、2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2of people in the in-group and another for people not in the in-group.Obedience to authority:A tendency to c

37、omply with instructions from an authority.Overconfidence effect:A cognitive bias that leads us to overestimate what percentage of our answers on a subject are correct.Better-than-average illusion:A self-deception cognitive bias that leads us to overestimate our own abilities relative to those of oth

38、ers.?Truth:A claim is true if it is free from error.?Knowledge:If you believe something,have an argument beyond a reasonable doubt that it is so,and have no reason to think you are mistaken,you can claim you know it.Unit2 Notes：Premise：The claim or claims in an argument thought to support or demonst

39、rate a conclusion.Conclusion：In an argument,the claim thought to be supported or demonstrated by another claim(or claims)referred to as the premise(or premises).Valid argument:An argument such that it would be self-contradictory to maintain that the conclusion is false and the premise(or premises)ar

40、e true.Sound argument:A valid argument whose premises are true 精品w o r d 学习资料 可编辑资料-精心整理-欢迎下载-第 5 页，共 21 页文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8

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42、A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8

43、G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3

44、A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8

45、G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3

46、A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2Stronger/weaker arguments:The more likely the premise of an inductive argu

47、ment makes the conclusion,the stronger the argument,and the less likely it makes the conclusion,the weaker the argument.Balance of considerations reasoning:Trying to determine which considerations,both for and against thinking or doing something,carry the most weight.Inference to the Best Explanatio

48、n(IBE):An argument whose conclusion states the most likely cause of something.Recap Arguments always have two parts,a premise(or premises)and a conclusion.The same statement can be a premise in one argument and a conclusion in a second argument.The two fundamental types of reasoning are deductive de

49、monstration and inductive support.A deductive argument is used to demonstrate or prove a conclusion,which it does if it is sound.An argument is sound if it is valid and its premise(or premises)is true.An argument is valid if it isnt possible for its premise or premises to be true and its conclusion

50、to be false.An inductive argument is used to support rather than to demonstrate a 精品w o r d 学习资料 可编辑资料-精心整理-欢迎下载-第 6 页，共 21 页文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A8 HJ5E2O1C5B8 ZZ1B8G9T9W2文档编码:CO2Z5D5H3A