托福阅读指代题四大类代词关系梳理.docx

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1、托福阅读指代题四大类代词关系梳理 托福阅读指代题虽然考的是代词，却暗含着对指代关系、语篇逻辑的深层考察，并非单纯词汇层面的考察。依据代词的不同类别，我们把托福阅读指代题分成四大类型：人称代词类、指示代词类、关系代词类和不定代词类。详细请看下文! 托福阅读指代题四大类代词关系梳理 托福阅读考试中指代题是不行忽视的一大题型，虽然考的是代词，却暗含着对指代关系、语篇逻辑的深层考察，并非单纯词汇层面的考察。通常的提问形式体现为“The word they/their/it/its/some in the passage refers to_”，然后给出四个选项，这四个词通常都是原文中出现过的生词，并且

2、往往都是在they/their/it/its/some这几个词的旁边，须要考生经过严密思索推想，选出一个既符合行文逻辑又符合上下文意思的选项。 那么我们如何明确推断代词所指代的对应内容呢?我们可以依据代词的不同类别，把指代题分成四大类型：人称代词类、指示代词类、关系代词类和不定代词类。然后就可以依据不同类别的代词特征一一解答了。下面我们来详细看一下四大类代词的特征及协助解答托福阅读指代题的策略。 第一类，人称代词 人称代词主要包括：I，you，he，she，it，we，they，me，him，them，yours，his，her，its，their等。此类题型应在做题时依据代词的单复数及其所能

3、指代的名词来推断，通常是往前找最近的核心名词。 例如： “An auction is a popular way of buying and selling. It is a useful way of deciding the value of things。” The word It in the passage refers to _。 A. theory B. price C. process D. auction 往前追溯单数形式的核心名词，并且能用在其次句的主语位置的词，就只能是第一句中出现的auction一词了，所以正确答案选D。 其次类，指示代词 指示代词主要包括this, t

4、hat, these, those等。在这种句子中，this和that通常指代某个观点事物或现象，而these和those通常指复数形式下的某些观点事物或看法，并且该类题也遵循往前找的原则。 例如： “The dragon also has large claws that are used when it is younger. It uses these to climb trees to escape from the jaws of older dragons. But when they get older， these claws are used mainly as weapon

5、s。” The word these in the passage refers to _。 A. claws B. trees C. jaws D. weapons 该题中的these肯定是指之前已经出现过的名词，所以现在才能用代词进行指示，因此我们首先可通过往前追溯的原则进行排出，B、C、D瞬间就都被解除了。再将A选项带入原句验证，看逻辑和意思是否与句意相符，最终验证表明，答案正是A选项。 第三类，关系代词 主要包括which, that, who, whom等。在这种句子中，通常采纳就近原则。尤其是由“， which”格式引导的从句，一般都是非限制性定语从句，通常就是指该词前面紧挨着的名

6、词。但须要留意的是，当关系代词前有插入语时，须要先去掉插入语，再运用就近原则。 例如： “Scientists have been looking for energy sources to replace oil. They have studied wind，ethanol，and nuclear energy. They have also started to look at coal again. Coal，which is the cheapest energy source，is found in many parts of the world. However，it is da

7、ngerous to mine. It also pollutes the environment。” The word which in the passage refers to _。 A. nuclear energy B. ethanol C. wind D. coal 一看词句考察的是由which引导的非限制性定语从句，则坚决果断得把答案定位到which前的名词“coal”上，所以一眼就能选出该题的正确答案D选项。 第四类，不定代词 主要包括some，any，every，each，none，some.others.，one.,another等。这类代词通常指的都是该词前后与其关系最紧

8、密的名词主语，并且留意词的单复数形式。 例如： “Some studies show that one in eight plant species is threatened with extinction. It is estimated that 140000 species of plants are lost each year. Many of these lost plants could have been very useful in creating new drugs to combat disease。” The word Many in the passage ref

9、ers to _。 A. studies B. plant species C. lost plants D. new drugs 首先确定该题的“Many”所在句主语应当是指“lost plants”，并且“of”是表示所属的关系，所以“Many”应当是属于“these lost plants”中的一部分，所以很明显“Many”指的就应当是“lost plants”，因此答案选C。 须要留意的是这四大类代词只能大致涵盖托福阅读指代题中所涉及的大致类型，要想全面把握托福阅读指代题，我们还是须要把握好真题，结合解题技巧与策略进行有针对性的练习与总结，按部就班提高托福阅读水平与分数。 托福阅读指代

10、题解题思路及步骤 一、问题形式 被考的文章中有一个词或词组被加亮，这个词通常是一个代词或名词。指代题的形式如下： The word (or phrase) X in the passage refers to 二、解题步骤 1. 依据解题技巧确定答案 2. 代入原文验证，看语义、逻辑和语法上是否通顺 三、基本原则 1. 就近指代 所谓就近指代，就是被指代对象通常在指代词前不远处，如本句或上一句中。有时也出现在更前面的一句中。例如， Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds

11、in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. The killing of birds of prey by wind turbines has pitted environmentalists who champion wildlife protection against envi

12、ronmentalists who promote renewable wind energy. Researchers are evaluating how serious this problem is and hope to find ways to eliminate or sharply reduce this problem. The phrase this problem in the passage refers to interference with the flight patterns of migrating birds in certain areas buildi

13、ng ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines meeting the demands of environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy 本题涉及的是一个词组this problem。找寻这一词组的指代对象时只需向上搜寻就行。依据就近原则，前一句中的主语the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines可以初步确定为答案。将其代入原文，符合语义和逻辑，因此第

14、三个选项为正确答案。第一个选项和第三个选项都和this problem相距较远，而且代入时语义和逻辑上不通，因此为干扰选项。 2. 数格一样 被指代对象通常与指代词在数(如单数或复数)和格(主格或宾格)两方面相同。如单数代词one指代单数名词，复数代词they指代复数名词。 四、主要思路 1. 主从复合句中的指代 在主从复合句中，其次句的代词主语常常指代第一句的名词主语。例如， The fins are stiff, smooth, and narrow, qualities that also help cut drag. When not in use, the fins are tuck

15、ed into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours. The word they in the passage refers to ?qualities ?fins ?grooves ?depressions 在这一例子中，从句so that they中的代词主语they指代主句的名词主语the fins，因此其次个选项为正确答案。 新托福阅读背景学问：植物适应沙漠 Plant adaptation to the d

16、esert(背景材料) Cactus adaptations. The secret to the superior endurance of cacti lies in their adaptations. Over millions of years, through natural selection, only the strongest and best adapted species survived. As you know, it is very dry in the desert. Plants that adapt to this are known as xerophyt

17、es (from zeros, dry and python, plant). There are plants that avoid the dry season by sprouting from seed just after the spring rain and growing very fast so that by the time the dry season comes, they have already produced a lot of seeds and died. These seeds lie on the soil for the dry season and

18、sprout again in spring and the cycle repeats. Other xerophytes simply drop their leaves and stay dormant for the winter. But there is another special type of xerophytes which stores water in its fleshy tissues. Such plants are called succulents (from success, juicy). The cactus is a typical example

19、of a succulent. If you cut a cactus open, you see a juicy, slimy tissue. This is where the moisture is stored for the dry season. The part between the middle circle (and pith) and just under the very green part of the plant (or palisade parenchyma) just under the skin is allocated for the storage of

20、 water and food for the plant. This is a type of spongy parenchyma and can take up to 85% of the plant's volume. This is a major adaptation in the desert. Because the plant remains completely alive during the dry season and there is no need for it to dry up and lose everything, makes it possible

21、 for the plant to grow to large sizes. Another advantage is that the plant retains supplies (in the form of starch) for the winter so that it can flower right away in spring without accumulating more supplies (as most plants need to do in spring). The whole purpose of storing supplies for the winter

22、 is mostly to energize flowering in spring but it also lets the cactus start growing much sooner. Flowering plants breathe and transpire (evaporate water from their surface) through closeable microscopic pores called stoats on the leaves or stems. To do this, their pores have to be open. In most pla

23、nts these are open all day and on warm nights. But for cacti this is inconvenient as in daytime it is very hot and thus the plant would lose a lot of water through evaporation. So the cactus must close them in the daytime. But then it cannot breathe or photosynthesize (the process where sugars are m

24、ade from carbon dioxide and water and releasing oxygen using the sun's energy). Succulents have an adaptation to that. Their stoats are closed during the day and are open at night, when it is not that hot and store carbon dioxide in its tissues as crass lean acid and then turn it back to carbon

25、dioxide in the daytime. This process is called crass lean acid metabolism or CAM and it is a very smart way of respiring in the desert. If we look at the outside of the plant, we notice that there is a tough leathery skin covering the plant, we can also notice the presence of ribs and spines and som

26、etimes fur. These are all very smart adaptations. They serve mainly for surviving heat but are also used as defense. The tough leathery skin is very impermeable to water, thus reducing evaporation from the surface of the plant. This skin often has a layer of plant wax on it which is often lightly co

27、lored (Pilosocereus azures is an example of a plant with such wax), white or blue. This reflects light and also reduces evaporation from the inside. The ribs are special structures that are also used for enduring extreme heat. The ribs (and spines) trap wind so that the plant is enveloped in a layer

28、 of extremely still air, and this is a very important factor in reducing evaporation. On very windy days even the ribs don't help and cacti sometimes wilt because of high water loss. The spines have different functions. They not only help shade the plant from the sun but are also known to help t

29、he cactus absorb water. They do it like this. On cool nights, dew settles on the spines of the plant. The spines are actually known to draw droplets of water towards the areole (the point out of which the spines grow) and here the droplets are absorbed. You can try this at home. Spray the plants wit

30、h a very fine mist of water and watch what happens to the droplets that settle on the spines. They literally get attracted to the areole along the spine. The spine's structure allows them to do this. Even spines pointing downwards seem to suck the droplets up themselves. Adaptation features are

31、visible in this Pilosocereus glauchochorous. Notice the spines, ribs, fur and wax (the blue coloration). The top of a typically adapted plant. Some plants have fur; sometimes all over the plant, sometimes only near the top. This fur shades the plant even further and is also known to attract water to

32、wards the areole. Some plants only have fur near the top. This is very beneficial because the top of the plant is very sensitive to sunlight, new tissues get formed there. Young areoles, with their spines not even wooded yet can get dried up completely in the sun. When an areole is born near the top

33、 of the plant, it starts developing spines. At this time the fur appears as well. This fur accompanies the areole as it moves down the plant, shading the growing point inside. By the time the areole is about 15cm away from the top, the fur wears out completely and the now inactive areole gets expose

34、d to the sun. As for the roots of cacti, they are also fully adapted to living in the desert. Some species (especially plants from very dry deserts) have very shallow root systems that spread very far from the plant. This way the plant can take advantage of tiny amounts of moisture from dew or light

35、 rain as the roots spread far away and are very shallow (less than 10cm deep while spreading up to 5 meters from the parent plant). On the other hand, some cacti send their roots deep down (like many Echinocacti) to reach the ground water. Rainforest cacti often have aerial roots that can collect wa

36、ter all the time when it rains (and it rains very often in South American forests). The shape of cacti itself is an adaptation. You may have noticed that cacti have a barrel like or candle like shape. This allows for maximum internal volume with a minimum surface area, which is also very smart adaption as a cactus can store a lot of water and have a small external surface area to reduce water loss. 托福阅读指代题四大类代词关系梳理本文来源：网络收集与整理，如有侵权，请联系作者删除，谢谢！第16页 共16页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页第 16 页 共 16 页