英语修辞写作—语法修辞篇 参考材料 Section 11.docx

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1、Section 11 Modes of Discourse (6)Argumentative一OrganizationI. Key to the Exercise1. What are the main characteristics of argumentative essay? Where are argumentative essays located on the spectrum of rhetoric?Find out the answer in the Lecture.2. What is the structure of the argumentative essay? How

2、 does The Neanderthal should be Classified as a Subspecies of Modern Man” conform to the structuring of an argumentative essay?Find out the answer in the Lecture.3. What is positive argument and what is negative argument? Which of the two is more applicable to scientific papers and which is more app

3、licable to writings on social affairs?Find out the answer in the Lecture.4. Is each of the following paragraphs a positive argument or a negative one? If negative, is it a sheer refutation or synthetized one? Why?The first paragraph is a positive argument. It is a sheer refutation.The second paragra

4、ph is a negative argument. It refutes the classification of the domestic ferret as a wild animal by of the California Department of Fish & Game. It is also a sheer refutation.The third paragraph is a negative argument. It is a refutation combined with synthetization. In this and the following paragr

5、aphs, the author expressed his pro for energy treatment of some diseases, but he also concedes that some other diseases have to be treated by medicine： We must admit that these methods are very effective in the examples that they provide.IL Translation of the Sample TextOpen.III. Supplementary Sampl

6、es1. Sample (1): Organization (A)Health And Healing At Your FingertipsThe Argumentative EssayIntroductionAlmost every piece of writing is in some sense argumentative. At first sight, some of the writing tasks you may be given early on in your time in CEU may seem not to require you to do anything ot

7、her than regurgitate other peoples opinions. Later on, however, it will become clear that a good academic essay (or an MA thesis) demands more than just this: the conventions of English academic discourse, perhaps differently from those of your own language, require you to use other peoples ideas or

8、 research to support your own case. This is where many students who are unfamiliar with English rhetoric often fail: because they assume that academic writing is simply a matter of reciting the opinions of others, rather than arguing a case. Your decisions about which information to include, which a

9、uthorities to refer to, what to quote, how to explain and interpret data, or which methodology to choose should all be driven by a central desire to argue your position.It is important to remember therefore, that your writing needs to persuade your readers that what you have to say is relevant and i

10、mportant. There is, after all, limited point in presenting an argument in such an unconvincing way that no one will accept it. This means that you have to develop certain strategies and tools in order to put your point across effectively. Studying argumentation can help you to understand these criti

11、cal tools. However, reading and talking about the qualities of good and bad arguments is only one part of the process. It is essential to actual do writing in order to get better at it, and the more academic writing you do, the better writer you are likely to become.The process of producing a clear

12、and convincing argument helps a writer to mature as a thinker and a critic. This is because written argumentation facilitates the development of important mental skills: developing and organising ideas, evaluating evidence, observing logical consistency, and expressing yourself clearly and economica

13、lly. All of these are valuable skills in any field of academic study.Structure of an Argumentative EssayThe argumentative essay is a genre or type of written text which is used nowadays largely to train students in the skills of argumentation. Most of us rarely have to write a pure argumentative ess

14、ay in real life, but the skills and components of the argumentative essay form the basis of most if not all types of academic writing.A simple argumentative essay can be divided into certain component parts or stages, of which there are four which should almost always be present. These four parts ar

15、e discussed below.i) The IntroductionExcept in certain literary genres, such as detective novels, it is unusual for the reader to be thrown straight into the middle of the action. In most types of writing, the first thing that a writer does is to introduce the subject to be dealt with. The purpose o

16、f this introductory paragraph is to catch the readers attention and give an orientation to the topic. It will also usually lead, often through a series of steps, from the more general situation toward the specific issue you plan to discuss. If you want for example to address the topic of infringemen

17、ts of article 13 of the European Convention of Human Rights in Albania, you might well want to start with the topic of human rights generally, then focus on human rights in Albania, before finally addressing specifically article 13 in Albania.Although there is no formula for writing a successful int

18、roduction, the following elements commonly appear:Introductory Statements9. The first sentence of your essay needs to be interesting enough to make your reader want to keep reading. You might present striking figures, a provocative statement or a leading question. In any case, you will also need to

19、lead your reader into the topic and focus in on the specific area you will be discussing, ready for your thesis statement.Thesis Statement. This is usually the last sentence of your first paragraph, and it serves as the controlling force of your essay. The thesis statement states the position you ar

20、e arguing, that is, which side you are going to defend. Many students from Central Europe find it strange to say at the beginning of an essay what conclusion they will reach, preferring to keep it secret until the end. In English academic writing, however, it is normal and even desirable to tell you

21、r reader what side you are going to take at the beginning.ii) Presenting your CaseOnce you have laid the ground for the discussion in the introduction and outlined the position you intend to adopt, the body of the essay is the arena in which you present your case and try to persuade your reader that

22、 you are right. A well-presented case will convince the reader that because certain facts are true, and because certain beliefs are shared between writer and reader, the reader should therefore accept the writers conclusions as also being true.The most common way of presenting a case in academic wri

23、ting is to make an assertion or claim and then provide evidence to support it, usually but not always in the form of facts and examples. It is equally possible, however, to start with a review of facts and sample situations (support) and then to draw a conclusion (claim) from them. The following par

24、agraph from an essay on censorship provides an example of the claim-support approach:Censorship, by its very nature, goes against the principles of a democratic society, claim It is fundamentally undemocratic because it limits freedom of expression and allows the few to dictate what the many may - o

25、r may not - view, read or listen to. support For example, removing a controversial book from circulation in a public library, for whatever reason, cuts its author off from a large number of readers who have no other way to access the book. At the same time, the select group of individuals who decide

26、 to pull something off the shelf is, in effect, telling the general public that it may not read the book. These two examples develop the supporting sentence. This action, therefore, is more in keeping with a udictate-orshipn than a democracy, restatement of initial claim Behind these basic building

27、blocks of claim and support lie, as we saw in the critical reading section of the course, the assumptions on which a claim is based. Assumptions are the philosophical or moral views that we hope others in our society, including our reader, will share. For example, a discussion about the funding of s

28、tate medical services may be underpinned by the assumption that a cash price cannot be put on a human life. Most of the time, we hope that our reader will share our assumptions, otherwise they will be unlikely to accept the claim we make based on these assumptions. If this is not the case, then we w

29、ill need to argue differently; our assumptions themselves will then become claims and will need to be supported.iii) Anticipating ObjectionsThe conventions of English academic rhetoric, unlike those of some languages, require the writer at some stage to acknowledge the opposing view. A common approa

30、ch to essay writing is to present your own views, then consider critically the views of the opposition, though it is equally possible to start with the views you disagree with and criticise or reject them in order to make space for your own position. It may at first sight appear contradictory or det

31、rimental to your position to show the other side of the argument, however there are a number of good reasons for acknowledging the opposition: If you do not anticipate objections, you are deliberately suppressing the evidence against your case, and this lack of objectivity will very likely lose you

32、your readers sympathy. Remember that you are trying to persuade your reader to agree with you, not deceive them into agreeing. Your argument will have more credibility if you acknowledge the opposite side. As in any situation where you are trying to persuade someone of something, there will be peopl

33、e who disagree with you. By anticipating their objections and showing how those objections are less valid or well grounded than your own views, or how your awareness of these views has led you to modify your position, you strengthen your own case. The practice of including the opposition refines cri

34、tical thinking, forcing you as a writer to situate yourself within an ongoing debate and realise that other points of view not only exist, but also have validity.Common techniques for dealing with objectionsAs a general rule, you should start by identifying the opposing position. It is worth doing t

35、his as thoroughly and fairly as you can, given the space available, because misrepresenting or trivialising the opposing view is likely to earn you the sympathy of only the most uncritical reader. Once you have stated the opposing view, you will want to do one or more of the following: suggest solut

36、ions to the challenges that the opposing view poses to your argument point out weaknesses or problems in the support or warrant underlying the opposing claim make concessions to the opposing view and suggest a compromise position or solutionThe following example from an argumentative essay on censor

37、ship illustrates how anticipation of the opposing argument can serve to strengthen your own thesis. After writing the introduction and thesis, several paragraphs are developed in which it is argued that censorship is 6a bad idea, perhaps for several different reasons. Following this, the writer migh

38、t include a paragraph (or more) on the following lines, acknowledging the other side of the argument and making some concessions:While censorship is dangerous to a free society, some of the concerned citizens who are in favour of censorship may have valid points when they object that children should

39、 not be exposed to television violence. Concession made and an objection anticipated Indeed, often there is too much violence on television. Concession and point of agreement Perhaps the answer is for all networks to establish the same guidelines of self-censorship. Compromise solution offered If th

40、e networks were more responsible and tried to avoid material that is poor in taste, governmental officials, religious groups, and concerned parents might not feel the need to be involved in their decisions at all.Of course, this paragraph might, with minor adjustments, also come after the introducti

41、on, before moving on to the main arguments against censorship. Where you place the counter-argument, how much space you devote to it and how you deal with it are just some of the choices you make when writing an effective essay.iv) The ConclusionParticularly as you have already said in the introduct

42、ion which side you are going to take, many students are often unsure what to write in the conclusion. The conclusion is a very important part of the essay because it sums up the thesis and the evidence in favour of it, leaving your reader with a clear picture as to the position you have taken and wh

43、y. It is not advisable at this stage to start introducing new ideas that have not already been raised in the body of the essay. It is also unwise to use your conclusion as a kind of now heres what I think section. By doing so, you are likely to give the impression that anybody can think whatever the

44、y want. While this is in principle true, remember that your purpose is not just to tell your reader what you think, but to persuade them that what you think is in fact a tenable and valid position that they might also wish to adopt, or at least acknowledge. It is thus rather counterproductive at thi

45、s stage to suggest that neither side is better than the other.Common features of a conclusion to an argumentative essay are:Synthesis of the Argument: In the conclusion you should restate and summarise briefly the main points of your argument. Try to show the reader how the points you made and the e

46、vidence and examples you used fit together to prove your argument.Restatement of Thesis: Restate and stress the importance of your original thesis statement as the entire essay has been spent arguing and supporting this point. Some writers feel that restating the thesis verbatim is an effective rhet

47、orical device, while others believe it is better to rephrase it.Concluding Statements: This section signals the end of the essay and leaves a final impression on the reader. Below are some suggested approaches to writing concluding statements: Discuss the future of the subject at issue. This can emp

48、hasise the importance of your essay. It may also help the reader to apply the new information or see things more globally. Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your essay in the “real” world. Refer back to your introductory statements in order to “frame” your paper and bri

49、ng the reader full circle. Pose questions, either to your reader or in general, which may help your reader gain a new perspective on the topic that they may not have held before reading your conclusion. This approach may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.ConclusionWe have considered here particularly the structure of the argumentative essay, as it is relatively simple and straightforward, yet it contains most