论文写作 开头和结尾的写作.ppt

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1、Lecture 10 开头和结尾的写作,毕业论文“三段论”,引论：论文的开头部分。本论：论文的主体部分。结论：论文的收束部分或结尾。,.引论的写法,引论的作用在于引出论文主题，对论文作概要介绍。1 引论的构成引论又叫引言、绪论、序论、前言等，是文章的开头部分。在英语中，统一用introduction表示，而在汉语行文的文章中，一般用“引言”表示。引论的目的在于引出作者的论述主题，使读者对作者的研究问题、研究目的、研究方法等有个概括的了解。通常包含在引论中的内容有：研究问题、研究动机（选题缘起）、研究目的、文献综述、理论指引、研究方法、研究对象的来源、基本概念的阐述、文章结构安排等。一个具体的引

2、论里不一定全部包含这些内容，但研究问题、研究目的是必须要有的。,提出问题是在文献综述的基础上进行的，即在了解了这个课题前期的研究成果之后，通过中肯明了的分析找到可以进一步作研究的空间，然后提出自己的研究问题。完全没有前期研究的课题是不适合作为本科毕业论文的题目的，这样的题目很难做出来。通过分析找出前人研究的空间或余地是提出问题的关键，其具体做法是指出前人没有解决的问题，或指出前人的发现中的不正确或不当之处，或指出前人没有研及的方面。以下句式可以选用：Until now, none of these studies/findings/ investigations have shown Howe

3、ver, few studies/researches/ investigations are convincing/ satisfactory to interpret However, little research has made valuable contributions to These findings suggest that this treatment might not be so effective when applied to It would seem, therefore, that further investigations are needed in o

4、rder to ,中心论点（thesis）是论文作者所要证明的主要观点，集中体现了作者的写作目的。中心论点一般是用一个句子将所有要点涵盖其中，而且常常被安排在起始段落的最后。如：Theodor Seuss Ceisel writes and illustrates many childrens books, usually in verse, under the pseudonym of “Dr. Seuss.” He has written twenty-six best sellers over a period of thirty years, and they are all stil

5、l in print. In story after story, this author creates a topsy-turvy world where the normal becomes aberrant and the aberrant becomes the normal. The simply vocabulary and rhyming lines of Dr. Seusss books make them easy for children to read, but the authors illustrations are primarily responsible fo

6、r the imaginative flair in his work.,写中心论点时，论文作者要注意以下几点：要有清晰的单一主线。试比较下面两段话：Because of his robust language and novel comic plots, Titus Maccicus Plautus can be considered the best Roman comic playwright, whose plays are still successfully staged today.The Roman theatre was inspired by the Greek theat

7、re which it imitated, and eventually the Romans produced great plays in their theatres, such as those by Plautus, who was the best Roman comic writer because of his robustness and inventiveness.(2) 避免使用比喻。如: “Henry James is the Frank Lloyd Wright of the American novel.” 应改称“The novels of Henry James

8、 have internal consistency because of the way he unifies his themes, patterns his episodes, and orders his images.”这样直接了当的表达。（3）语言要清楚明了，不要模糊不清。如：“Cigarette smoking wreaks havoc on the body.”就不如“Cigarette smoking harms the body by constricting the blood vessel, accelerating the heartbeat, paralyzing

9、the cilia in the bronchial tubes, and activating excessive gastric secretions in the stomach.”具体、明了。（4）不要使用问句。因为问句不肯定，无助于点明要点。 如：“Is it possible not to allow the participation of translators since the obtrusion of translators exists both in the stage of understanding and expression in translation no

10、 matter you admit it or not?” 该问句没有给出肯定的观点，要明确给出观点，作者要么给出答案，要么用肯定的来替换这个句子。,有的引言中没有中心陈述（thesis statement），为了明确课题，这时需要陈述研究目的。陈述研究目的可采用如下的句式：The aim of the present thesis is to The purpose of this paper is to The focus of this thesis is on In this paper the present writer intends to This paper will ana

11、lyze The present work extends the application of the theory of This paper reports on the results obtained in The present paper is an investigation of This study is a historical analysis of ,介绍论文的结构可以选用的句式包括：This thesis consists of parts/ chapters. The plan/ structure of this thesis is as follows. Th

12、e thesis is organized in the following way The thesis is divided into parts/ chapters.The paper falls into parts/ chapters besides this introduction and a conclusion. Chapter One deals with Chapter Two is an analysis of In Chapter Three, two problems are discussed ,样例例一：The Position of Sentence Conn

13、ectors in Academic English(Introduction) Many commentators have noted that sentence connectors (e.g. however) are important and useful element in expository and argumentative writing. Frequent studies of their occurrence in academic English extend at least as far as Huddleston (1971). ESL writing te

14、xtbooks have for many years regularly included chapters on sentence connectors (e.g. Herbert, 1965). Most reference grammars deal with their grammatical status, classification, meaning, and use. Some attention has also been given to the position of sentence connectors in clauses and sentences. Quirk

15、 and Greenbaum (1973) observe (a) that the normal position is initial; (b) that certain connectors, such as hence and overall, “are restricted, or virtually restricted, to initial position” (p.248); and (c) that medial positions are rare for most connectors, and final position on semantic ground is

16、an unpublished paper by Salera (1976) discussed in Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1983). The Salera paper deals only with adversatives like however and suggests that reflects a contrast that is not necessarily unexpected. However, neither of these studies provides any descriptive evidence of the a

17、ctual positions of sentence connectors in academic texts. In the present paper, we report on a preliminary study of sentence-connector positions in a sample of twelve published articles.,例二：An Experimental Study on the Group Revision Method in Teaching L2 Writing(Introduction) To handle the writing

18、class is no easy job for the teacher. Traditionally, under the product-oriented approach, the teaching of L2 writing has been synonymous with the teaching of grammar or sentence. Recently, there is a shift from product to process-oriented approach to the teaching of writing. The latter focuses on wr

19、iting as a process consisting of prewriting drafting and revising phases. It emphasizes rhetorical principles of audience. Inspired by the process-oriented approach, peer response groups are warmly advocated by some theorists and teachers. Using different research paradigms and working with students

20、 of different levels, they have shown the strength of peer influence on learning. Since revision occupies an important position in the whole writing process, many studies have been conducted from different angles to assess the effectiveness of peer revision. For instance, through comparison,between

21、teachers feedback and peers comments, Caulk (1994) found that teachers comments were general, aimed particularly at the whole piece, whereas peers comments were more specific in focus. Nelson and Murphy (1993) explored how students negotiations lead to the incorporation of peer suggestions. They fou

22、nd that writers were more likely to incorporate their peer suggestions when they had interacted with their peers in a cooperative manner than they had interacted in a defensive manner or had not interacted at all.,In spite of the growing research on peer revision in L2 writing, there is an area left

23、 unattended. That is: if small response groups are employed in the classroom activities, what patterns of classroom organization are most beneficial for the revision tasks? That is how to organize students into small groups. In the present paper, this research question will be explored through three

24、 repetitive experiments. Suggestions are made for organizing classroom activities, with an emphasis on considering differences among learners and encouraging spontaneous peer talk during the revision process. Chapter 1 serves as an overview of literature on the theoretical and empirical students of

25、teaching L2 writing from the product and process-oriented approach to the response groups in L2 writing classroom and to group revision methodology. Chapter 2 describes the present study in terms of participants, research methods and data analyses. Chapter 3 proceeds to analyze the empirical data st

26、atistically, providing general discussion of the experiments. Chapter 4 states the implications of the present study for L2 writing teaching methodology as well as the limitation and directions for further research. Finally a conclusion is provided.,例三：A Rainbow across the Souls between Male and Fem

27、ale- A Probe into Woolfs Androgynous Vision in Her Novel To the Lighthouse(Introduction) The ancient Greek philosopher Plato once told a famous myth, “In the beginning human beings were in the form of perfect circles or spherical. They had four arms and legs and two faces, both the same, on a cylind

28、rical nick. While later for some reason, they were split into two halves. Ever since then, the split-parts searches incessantly for their other half.” Perhaps Plato was the first to put forward the concept of androgyny in the description and imagination of the original human beings and original huma

29、n love. However, to our regret, since the split between male and female, they had never lived in harmony as they were in the origin. The frictions caused by unequal social positions could be witnessed from ages to ages. These conflicts finally led to the intense interrelationship between men and wom

30、en and at the same time largely restrained the creativity of human beings.,Therefore later some scholars and philosophers began their introspection. They realized the conflicts between men and women were the projection of the unconscious struggle between genders depends on the inner harmony of the i

31、ndividual. So some feminists picked up the concept of androgyny as their feminist values, while this time, in the spiritual sense. They believed, “To be androgynous was to partake of both female and male attributes.”1 This tenet was supported by C.G. Jung, the famous Swiss psychologist. He believed

32、our human beings had two basic archetypes: Anima and Animus. “Anima (the Greek word for soul) is the female archetype in man. It predisposes man to understand the nature of woman, serves as the compensatory sentimental inner face of the rational male persona; Animus (the Greek word for mind (spirit)

33、 is the male archetype in women. It predisposes woman to understand the nature of man, serves as the compensatory rational inner face of the sentimental female persona”.2 In Jungs mind, “androgyny refers to those who have fully developed both the masculine and feminine aspects of their personality.”

34、3 These values were further developed and enriched by Virginia Woolf, the famous British modern feminist and novelist. She explained her belief of androgyny in the feminist essay, “A Room of Ones Own”:,“In each of us two powers preside, one male and one female, and in the mans brain, the man predomi

35、nates over the woman, and in the womans brain, the woman predominates over the man. The normal and comfortable state of being is that when the two live in harmony together, spiritually cooperating. If one is man, still the women part of the brain must have effect; and a woman also must have intercou

36、rse with the man in her. Coleridge perhaps meant this when this fusion takes place the mind is fully fertilized and uses all its faculties.”4 In fact, androgyny was still an ideal hypothesis in Virginia Woolfs mind. However, is there any possibility to reach such integrity and harmony in mind? One o

37、f Woolfs novels To the Lighthouse is the typical demonstration and evidence of her androgynous vision. From this novel we can learn the fact that there existed contradiction and conflicts in the minds of man and woman. It is through great efforts (such as conversation and cooperation between the two

38、 parts), individuals could reach the unity and harmony between two parts in their souls, thus could bring their creativity to a full play (“the normal and comfortable state of being”).,This paper mainly tries to analyze how the novel To the Lighthouse demonstrated Woolfs androgynous vision. The crit

39、ical study on this novel is not only interesting but also revealing. As we witness the whole process of how the characters made their efforts to dissolve the conflicts in a final mental unity and peace, we can also enjoy ourselves in the artistic beauty which the spiritual harmony and integrity brin

40、gs to us.1. Hermaphrodites: Gender Transgression, or Gender Transcendence? http:/parallel.park.uga.edu/mkozusko/634/hermo.html2. C.G. Jung. Core of Personality. http:/www.geocities. Com/Athens/Troy/2967/Jung.html3. ibid4. Virginia Woolf. A Room of Ones Own, p102.,2.结论的写法,结论是引言的照应和整篇论文内容的总结，是论文的主要组成部

41、分之一。要想了解一篇论文的主要意思，一般要读一下它的引言、正文的小标题和结论。出现在结论中的内容大致有以下三种：一是对论文的主要观点进行梳理总结；二是对后续研究予以展望；三是围绕论题提出可行性建议。这些内容不一定都同时出现在一篇论文的结尾中，其中前两种内容同时出现的情况居多。,例一： We have argued that coherence is relevant to information flow, theme selection and cohesive ties. The theory behind argumentation is of course the cognitive

42、semiotic framework the writer has been building for many years. This framework is, as the writer has shown, applicable to text analysis. Under the guidance of this theory, a textual organization includes the coherent patterns on the conceptual stratum and the cohesive device on the lexico-grammatica

43、l stratum. They are the two sides of the linguo-sign. In textual processing, progression of new information is based on a network of mutually accessible concepts. In the conceptual network, the primary concepts are the control center and are repeatedly activated. It has also been observed that the p

44、rimary concepts and their closely related concepts have very high probability of being chosen as themes. And most thematic progression starts from them. We also discussed various cohesive ties which reflect coherent network and have their specific purposes in information conveyance. They are used to

45、 emphasize, to condense and to create interesting variations.,例二： Studies of culture teaching only have a short history, but systematic research in this field is deepening. However, how to conduct culture teaching well in language classes is an expanding problem for language teachers. The four princ

46、iples in culture teaching discussed in this chapter may be incomplete or may not be our sole guidance, however, to a certain extent they serve as basic rules on which culture teaching can be based. In some cases special emphasis is laid on one or two of the principles. In other words, the principles

47、 are used alternatively or altogether. It just depends on who the learners are or what the situation is.,例三： This paper mainly discusses Confucius method of teaching by elicitation and that of “teaching students in accordance with their aptitude,” and their applicability to Chinas education today. S

48、ome of his teaching methods are still useful today, but only following what he did is far from enough. An important thing for todays education to do is follow the educational principles Confucius advocated and develop rational and feasible teaching methods which can meet the needs of the country in the new century.,3.总结,本讲我们讨论和演示了毕业论文引言和结论的写法，为了熟悉它们的写法，课后可以找一些论文阅读，通过分析所读论文的引论和结论，好好体会一下它们的写法。当然，要想真正掌握它们的写法，还依赖于在熟悉它们的基本写法的基础上在毕业论文的写作中亲自实践。,