研究生学术综合英语上册Unit1-4课文及翻译全---请叫我雷锋(15页).doc

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1、-第 1 页研究生学术综合英语上册 Unit1-4课文及翻译全-请叫我雷锋-第 2 页Unit1Presenting a SpeechStephen LucasOf all human creations,language may be the most remarkable.Through language we shareexperiences,formulate values,exchange ideas,transmit knowledge,and sustain culture.Indeed,language is vital to thinking itself.Contrary

2、to popular belief,language does not simply mirrorreality but also helps to create our sense of reality by giving meaning to events.Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works.Words are the tools of aspeakers craft.They have special uses,just like the tools of any other profession.A

3、s a speaker,you should be aware of the meanings of words and know how to use language accurately,clearly,vividly,and appropriately.Using language accurately is as vital to a speaker as using numbers accurately is to anaccountant.Never use a word unless you are sure of its meaning.If you are not sure

4、,look up theword in a dictionary.As you prepare your speeches,ask yourself constantly,“What do I reallywant to say?What do I really mean?”Choose words that are precise and accurate.Using language clearly allows listeners to grasp your meaning immediately.You can ensure thisby using familiar words th

5、at are known to the average person and require no specializedbackground;by choosing concrete words in preference to more abstract ones,and by eliminatingverbal clutter.Using language vividly helps bring your speech to life.One way to make your language morevivid is through imagery,or the creation of

6、 word pictures.You can develop imagery by usingconcrete language,simile,and metaphor.Simile is an explicit comparison between things that areessentially different yet have something in common;it always contains the words“like”or“as.”Metaphor is an implicit comparison between things that are differen

7、t yet have something incommon;it does not contain the words“like”or“as.”Another way to make your speeches vivid is by exploiting the rhythm of language.Fourdevices for creating rhythm are parallelism,repetition,alliteration,and antithesis.Parallelism isthe similar arrangement of a pair or series of

8、related words,phrases,or sentences.Repetition is theuse of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences.Alliteration comes from repeating the initial consonant sounds of close or adjoining words.Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas,usually

9、in parallel structure.Using language appropriately means adapting to the particular occasion,audience,and topicat hand.It also means developing your own language style instead of trying to copy someoneelses.If your language is appropriate in all respects,your speech is much more likely to succeed.Go

10、od speeches are not composed of hot air and unfounded assertions.They need strongsupporting materials to bolster the speakers point of view.In fact,the skillful use of supportingmaterials often makes the difference between a good speech and a poor one.The three basic typesof supporting materials are

11、 examples,statistics and testimony.In the course of a speech you may use brief examples specific instances referred to inpassing and sometimes you may want to give several brief examples in a row to create astronger impression.Extended examples often called illustrations,narratives,or anecdotes are

12、longer and more detailed.Hypothetical examples describe imaginary situations and can bequite effective for relating ideas to the audience.All three kinds of examples help to clarify ideas,to reinforce ideas,or to personalize ideas.To be more effective,though,they should be vivid and-第 3 页richly text

13、ured.Statistics can be extremely helpful in conveying your message,as long as you use themsparingly and explain them so they are meaningful to your audience.Above all,you shouldunderstand your statistics and use them fairly.Numbers can easily be manipulated and distorted.Make sure that your figures

14、are representative of what they claim to measure,that you usestatistical measures correctly,and that you take statistics only from reliable sources.Testimony is especially helpful for student speakers,because they are seldom recognized asexperts on their speech topics.Citing the views of people who

15、are experts is a good way to makeyour ideas more credible.When you include testimony in a speech,you can either quote someoneverbatim or paraphrase their words.As with statistics,there are guidelines for using testimony.Be sure to quote or paraphrase accurately and to cite qualified unbiased sources

16、.If the source isnot generally known to your audience,be certain to establish his or her credentials.The impact of a speech is strongly affected by how the speech is delivered.You cannot makea good speech without having something to say.But having something to say is not enough.Youmust also know how

17、 to say it.Good delivery does not call attention to itself.It conveys thespeakers ideas clearly,interestingly,and without distracting the audience.There are four basic methods of delivering a speech:reading verbatim from a manuscript,reciting a memorized text,speaking with PowerPoint,and speaking ex

18、temporaneously,orimpromptu.The last of these speaking extemporaneously is the method you probably willuse for classroom speeches and for most speeches outside the classroom.When speakingextemporaneously,you will have only a brief set of notes or a speaking outline.Speaking withPowerPoint is widely u

19、sed now and very effective indeed.Certainly there are other factors you should consider,such as personal appearance,bodilyaction,gestures,eye contact,volume,pauses and so on.By paying enough attention to what ismentioned above,you may present an effective speech.第一单元如何发表演说斯蒂芬卢卡斯在人类创造的万物中，语言可能是最卓越的一项

20、创造。通过语言，我们可以分享经验、阐明价值观念、交流思想、传播知识、传承文化。确实，语言对于思想本身至关重要。和流行的信仰不同的是：语言并不是简单地反映事实，而是通过对事件意义的思考来帮助人们感悟现实。优秀的演说者尊重语言并懂得如何驾驭语言。语言是演说者展示才能的工具，对于他们来说，如同其他职业的工具一样,语言也有特殊的功用。作为一名演说者，你应该意识到话语的意义，并懂得如何准确无误地使用语言，使其表达清楚，趣味横生，恰如其分。如同数字对于会计的重要性一样，准确地使用语言对于演说者至关重要。在没有确切知道一个词语的意思之前，千万不要盲目使用。碰到没有把握的词语，一定要查词典追根究底。当你准备演

21、讲之前，一定要不断地问自己：“我究竟想说些什么？我究竟想表达什么样的意思？”因此，对于一篇演讲稿的用词来说，必须准确无误。如果语言表达清楚无误，听众就能很快抓住你的意思。鉴于此，演说者应该使用那些对于大多数人来说非常熟悉的词语，这些词语不需要任何专业背景就能够理解；演说者应该使用那些表达具体而不是相对抽象的词语；并且千万不要乱堆砌辞藻，哗众取宠。准确生动地使用语言能够使你的演说贴近生活。有一种方法可以使你的语言更加生动形象，那就是通过展开联想或创造语言图示。通过使用表达具体的词语、明喻或者暗喻等手法-第 4 页可以展开想像。明喻是对事物不同之处的比较，不过有些是相同的：它们总是包含“像一样”或

22、者“如同一样”这样的连词。暗喻是一种隐性的比喻，它能够把两个形式不同但是有一些相通之处的事物联系在一起，暗喻不包含“像一样”或者“如同一样”这样的连词。另一种让你的演说生动形象的方法是注重语言的节奏感。有四种修辞格可以让你的语言富有节奏感：排比、重复、头韵和对比。排比是将一组或一系列具有相似结构的词语、短语或者句子排列在一起；重复是在一系列短句或者长句的开头或者结尾使用相同的一句话或者一组词语；头韵是指邻近或者相邻的几个句子中的首个词语的辅音字母相同；对比是将恰当地使用语言是指语言的运用要符合特定的场合、特定的观众和特定的主题。同时，恰当地使用语言还意味着演说者要有自己的语言风格，而不是模仿他

23、人的口吻。如果演说者的语言在各个方面都能够做到恰如其分，那么这篇演说成功的机率就会大大提高。优秀的演说并不是空穴来风、缺乏论据的决断。演说者必须找到强有力的论据来支持其观点。实际上，熟练地使用论据经常是区别一篇优秀演说词和一篇空洞演说词的关键所在。一般来说，通常有三种论据材料：事例、统计数据和证词。在演说过程中，你可以使用一些简明扼要的例子比如过去发生的一个很具体的事件有时候，你可以罗列好几个简明的例子，借此增强听众的印象。扩展性的例子描述、叙述或者奇闻轶事通常长一些，但更具体。夸张性的例子描述想像中的情形，这种例子能够将相关的想法有效地传达给听众。这三种例子都能够帮助演说者理清思绪、加强印象

24、或者使演说更加娓娓动听。为了使表达更加富有效果，例子应该生动活泼，丰富多彩。只要演说者对于统计数据用之得当并且加以解释，这些数据将有助于有效地传达信息，听众也能从统计数据中获益匪浅。最重要的是：演说者应该对统计数据了如指掌，并且运用得恰如其分。由于数据很容易操纵和捏造，因此，对于演说者来说，一定要确保图表没有张冠李戴，并且要确保统计方法正确，数据来源可靠。证词对于那些学生演说者来说特别重要，因为他们都不是演讲主题方面的专家，所以引用那些权威的观点对于增加演说者观点的可信度来说是一种好方法。演说者在演讲中引用证词，可以一字不差地引用别人的话，或者对他们的话进行解释说明。和统计数据一样，证词的使用

25、也需要遵循一定的程式。例如，一定要确保引用或者解释别人的话准确无误，并且确保引文来源可靠公正。如果听众对你的引文不太熟悉，请一定要确立引文作者的可信度。演说的方式也会极大影响其质量。如果一篇演说言之无物当然无人喝彩，但是只有内容是远远不够的，你还必须懂得如何演说。良好的演说方式虽然不能增添更多的信息量，但是它能够帮助演说者清晰地表达思想，使演说妙趣横生，让观众全神贯注。演说的表达方式基本上有四种：通读手稿中的段落、复述背诵过的一段文章、幻灯片辅助的演说以及即兴发挥或即席演说。最后一种方法在课堂讲座经常会用到，大部分课外讲座也会采用这种即席演说的方式。当你即席演说时，你只需要准备一小段简短的提要

26、或者一个演讲大纲即可。幻灯片辅助演说的方式现在运用得很广泛，事实证明这种方式也非常有效。当然，还有其他的因素你需要考虑，如个人的外表、肢体语、手势、目光接触、讲话的声调、停顿等。总之，如果你能够留心上述的方法，相信你的演讲一定会妙语连珠，赢得满堂喝彩。Unit2Energy in TransitionThe era of cheap and convenient sources of energy is coming to an end.Atransition to moreexpensive but less polluting sources must now be managed.Joh

27、n P.HoldrenUnderstanding this transition requires a look at the two-sided connection between energy and-第 5 页human well-being.Energy contributes positively to well-being by providing such consumerservices as heating and lighting as well as serving as a necessary input to economic production.But the

28、costs of energy including not only the money and other resources devoted to obtainingand exploiting it but also environmental and sociopolitical impacts detract from well-being.For most of human history,the dominant concerns about energy have centered on the benefitside of the energy well-being equa

29、tion.Inadequacy of energy resources or(more often)of thetechnologies and organizations for harvesting,converting,and distributing those resources hasmeant insufficient energy benefits and hence inconvenience,deprivation and constraints ongrowth.The 1970s,then,represented a turning point.After decade

30、s of constancy or decline inmonetary costs and of relegation of environmental and sociopolitical costs to secondary status energy was seen to be getting costlier in all respects.It began to be plausible that excessiveenergy costs could pose threats on a par with those of insufficient supply.It also

31、became possibleto think that expanding some forms of energy supply could create costs exceeding the benefits.The crucial question at the beginning of the 1990s is whether the trend that began in the1970s will prove to be temporary or permanent.Is the era of cheap energy really over,or will acombinat

32、ion of new resources,new technology and changing geopolitics bring it back?One keydeterminant of the answer is the staggering scale ofenergy demand brought forth by 100 years ofunprecedented population growth,coupled with an equally remarkable growth in per capitademand of industrial energy forms.It

33、 entailed the use of dirty coal as well as clean;undersea oil aswell as terrestrial;deep gas as well as shallow;mediocre hydroelectric sites as well as good ones;and deforestation as well as sustainable fuelwood harvesting.Except for the huge pool of oil underlying the Middle East,the cheapest oil a

34、nd gas arealready gone.Even if a few more giant oil fields are discovered,they will make little differenceagainst consumption on today s scale.Oil and gas will have to come increasingly,for mostcountries,from deeper in the earth and from imports whose reliability and affordability cannot beguarantee

35、d.There are a variety of other energy resources that are more abundant than oil and gas.Coal,solar energy,and fission and fusion fuels are the most important ones.But they all requireelaborate and expensive transformation into electricity or liquid fuels in order to meet societysneeds.None has very

36、good prospects for delivering large quantities of electricity at costscomparable to those of the cheap coal-fired and hydropower plants of the 1960 s.It appears,then,that expensive energy is a permanent condition,even without allowing for its environmental costs.The capacity of the environment to ab

37、sorb the effluents and other impacts of energytechnologies is itself a finite resource.The finitude is manifested in two basic types ofenvironmental costs.External costs are those imposed by environmental disruptions on society butnot reflected in the monetary accounts of the buyers and sellers of t

38、he energy.“Internalized costs”are increases in monetary costs imposed by measures,such as pollution-control devices,aimed atreducing the external costs.Both types of environmental costs have been rising for several reasons.First,the decliningquality of fuel deposits and energy-conversion sites to wh

39、ich society must now turn means morematerial must be moved or processed,bigger facilities must be constructed and longer distancesmust be traversed.Second,the growing magnitude of effluents from energy systems has led tosaturation of the environments capacity to absorb such effluents without disrupt

40、ion.Third,themonetary costs of controlling pollution tend to increase with the percentage of pollutants removed.-第 6 页Despite these expenditures,the remaining uninternalized environmental costs have beensubstantial and in many cases are growing.Those of greatest concern are the risk of death ordisea

41、se as a result of emissions or accidents at energy facilities and the impact of energy suppliedon the global ecosystem and on international relations.The impacts of energy technologies on public health and safety are difficult to pin down withmuch confidence.In the case of air pollution from fossil

42、fuels,in which the dominant threat topublic health is thought to be particulates formed from sulfur dioxide emissions,a consensus onthe number of deaths caused by exposure has proved impossible.Widely differing estimates resultfrom different assumptions about fuel compositions,air pollution control

43、technology,power-plantsitting in relation to population distribution,meteorological conditions affecting sulfate formation,and,above all,the relation between sulfate concentrations and disease.Large uncertainties also apply to the health and safety impacts of nuclear fission.In this case,differing e

44、stimates result in part from differences among sites and reactor types,in part fromuncertainties about emissions from fuel-cycle steps that are not yet fully operational(especiallyfuel reprocessing and management of uranium-mill tailings)and in part from differentassumptions about the effects of exp

45、osure to low-dose radiation.The biggest uncertainties,however,relate to the probabilities and consequences of large accidents at reactors,at reprocessingplants and in the transport of wastes.Altogether,the ranges of estimated hazards to public health from both coal-fired andnuclear-power plants are

46、so wide as to extend from negligible to substantial in comparison withother risks to the population.There is little basis,in these ranges,for preferring one of theseenergy sources over the other.For both,the very size of the uncertainty is itself a significantliability.Often neglected,but no less im

47、portant,is the public health menace from traditional fuelswidely used for cooking and water heating in the developing world.Perhaps 80 percent of globalexposure to particulate air pollution occurs indoors in developing countries,where the smoke fromprimitive stoves is heavily laden with dangerous hy

48、drocarbons.A disproportionate share of thisburden is borne,moreover,by women(who do the cooking)and small children(who indoors withtheir mothers).First,civilization depends heavily on services provided by ecological and geophysicalprocesses such as building and fertilizing soil,regulating water supp

49、ly,controlling pests andpathogens,and maintaining a tolerable climate;yet it lacks the knowledge and the resources toreplace natures services with technology.Second,human activities are now clearly capable ofdisrupting globally the processes that provide these services.Energy supply,both industrial

50、andtraditional,is responsible for a striking share of the environmental impacts of human activity.Theenvironmental transition of the past 100 years driven above all by a 20-fold increase infossil-fuel use and augmented by a tripling in the use of traditional energy forms hasamounted to no less than