英语修辞学教案.doc

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1、English Rhetoric 英语修辞学I. Connotation of Rhetoric：rhetoric的含义 1. Rhetoric may be used as an ordinary（普通用词） word and a technical term（专业术语）. 1) As an ordinary word, rhetoric in a derogatory sense means “skilful argumentation”（巧辩） and “empty or exaggerated eloquence”（虚夸的话）.e.g. the exaggerated rhetoric

2、 of presidential campaigns（总统竞选期间唱的高调）； the empty rhetoric of the politicians（政客们的花言巧语）; flowery rhetoric（华丽的辞藻） Rhetoric also means (1) “language designed to have a persuasive or impressive effect on its audience”（言语，辞令）, e.g. employ stirring rhetoric; soothing rhetoric; glowing rhetoric (2) “artis

3、tic language”（艺术语言）, e.g. the rhetoric of fiction（小说的艺术语言）; the rhetoric of film(电影语言); body rhetoric(肢体语言)2) As a technical term, rhetoric has several senses. In America, the writing course or the writing textbook is entitled “rhetoric”. Apart from the above senses, rhetoric also has the following

4、important senses: (1) Speaking rhetoric（演讲修辞）: the art of speaking(2) Compositional rhetoric（写作修辞）: the art of writing(3) Stylistic rhetoric（风格修辞，文体修辞）: the style of writing2. Rhetoric may also be subdivided into the following: 1) Lexical rhetoric（词汇修辞）: the rhetorical law of choosing words and phra

5、ses 2) Sentence rhetoric（句子修辞）: the rhetorical law selecting sentence patterns 3) Paragraph rhetoric（段落修辞）: the rhetorical law of organizing paragraphs 4) textual rhetoric（语篇修辞）: the rhetorical law of organizing textsII. Definition of Rhetoric 修辞学的定义 What is rhetoric ?1. Origin of modern rhetoric: 现

6、代修辞学的起源Rhetoric originated in “speaking”（说话）. Aristotle（亚里士多得）, in the 4th century BC, first defined rhetoric as the art of persuasion, equivalent to argumentation as people understand today. John Locke（约翰.洛克）, English philosopher of the late 17th century, described rhetoric as “the science of orato

7、ry(演说术)” or “the art of speaking with propriety, elegance and force(修辞学是说话得体、优美和有力的艺术)”. All this explains why the word “rhetoric” means “speaking” in such European languages as Greek, Latin, French, Spanish and Italian. In the book Modern Rhetoric by American linguists Brooks（布鲁克斯） and Warren（沃伦） r

8、hetoric is defined as “the art of using language effectively（修辞学是有效地使用语言的艺术）”.In the New Oxford Dictionary of English rhetoric is described as “the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the exploitation of figures of speech or other compositional techniques（修辞学是有效或有说服力的演说或写作

9、的艺术，特别是运用英语修辞格或其它写作的艺术）”.2. Rhetoric and Figures of Speech: Figures of speech are quite different from rhetoric, but they are important components in English rhetoric. In the New Oxford Dictionary of English, “figure of speech” is defined as “ a word or phrase used in a non-literal sense too add rhe

10、torical force or interest to a spoken or written passage”(修辞格是用一个非字面意义的单词或短语使一段口头或笔头的文字增加修辞效果或兴趣). They refer to rhetorical devices（修辞手段）, each of which has a fixed pattern, e.g. Simile is introduced by comparative words as, like, as if, as though, etc.; Like Simile, Metaphor refers to the compariso

11、n of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance; Irony refers to the intended implication of which is the opposite of the literal sense of words; Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense so as to describe a pers

12、on or thing; Pun; a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words; etc. These figures are employed in the following.He is as stupid as a goose. (=He is very stupid.) He has a heart of stone./ He has a heart like flint. (=

13、He is unfeeling and stubborn.)He slept like a log / top. (=He slept very soundly.) They are birds of a feather. (=They are people of the same sort.)(Simile and metaphor are used of the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance.)This hard-working boy seldom reads

14、 more than an hour per week. (If a boy seldom reads more than an hour per week, he must be very lazy, not hard-working.)(Irony refers to the intended implication being the opposite of the literal sense of words)He seems to be a clever fool. (=He seems to be a fool, but in fact he is very clever.)(Ox

15、ymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense)Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.(grave: adj. serious; n. tomb The speaker stresses the latter.)(Pun refers to a play on words，sometimes on different senses of the same word

16、and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words)3. The difference between rhetoric and grammar, phonetics, lexicology1) The difference between rhetoric and grammarRhetoric is different from grammar, but it is closely related to grammar and also based on grammar. To be grammatically co

17、rrect is foundation to writing, but it is not enough. Basic rhetorical requirements must also be met. Francis Christensenn, an American French rhetorician, once said: Grammar maps out the possible(计划可能发生的事情); rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective（使可能发生的事情变成很理想的事情或有效地事情）.

18、In the preface to the book A handbook of English Rhetoric Warren quoted a passage by a scholar: Grammar is the law of language, considered as language; rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought. Grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and pleasing.2) Rhetoric and

19、 phonetics, lexicologyRhetoric is quite different from phonetics and lexicology. Phonetics is about the study of speech sounds and their pronunciation; lexicology is about the study of the vocabulary of a language; grammar concerns the study or science of rules for forming words and combining them i

20、nto sentences; whereas rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing so as to persuade people effectively.III. The Object of the Study of Rhetoric （修辞学研究的内容） Rhetoric aims at studying all forms of culture, which may be forms of mass media or any cultural phenomenon, concrete or abstract. Modern rhetori

21、c seems to include all forms of discourse - written or colloquial, even all forms of communication in symbols.（修辞学研究的对象是一切文化形式，它们可以是任何这样或那样、具体或抽象的文化现象。现代修辞学似乎要把所有的话语形式-书面体和口语体，甚至所有用进行交流的形式都包括在内。）IV. Contents of Modern Rhetoric （现代修辞学的内容） 1. There are two main rhetorical trend（倾向，趋势） in contemporary

22、western culture: 1) Stylistics（文体学，风格学）, which is associated with two aspects of writing: (1)Various registers（语域）, e.g. scientific and technical writing（科技文体）, business writing (商业文体)and journalism（新闻体）; (2) Stylistic variants（文体的变体） - literary language and style, including personal style, and styl

23、es of different times and schools. 2) Rhetoric（修辞学）, which is chiefly concerned with techniques of how to influence the audience: the functions and effects of different language symbols in communication activities; measures to promote mutual understanding and to affect the emotions of the audience;

24、skills to handle persuasion and arguments as described in the “three aesthetic criteria（三个艺术标准）” and the “three levels of rhetorical operations”（三个层次的修辞活动）.2. Specifically speaking, rhetoric consists of two basic aspects: 1) Communicative rhetoric（交际修辞）, which emphasizes the choice of words and phra

25、ses, and selection of sentence patterns, organizing paragraphs and whole pieces of writing in such a way that ideas are expressed most clearly, most accurately and most appropriately and the best results are achieved in communication. 2) Aesthetic rhetoric（艺术修辞）, which stresses the vividness and gra

26、cefulness（得体） in expressing ones ideas by aesthetic approaches like the use of figures of speech so as to increase the emotional appeal （增强情感魅力）of ones speech or writing.V. The Three Fundamental Elements in Writing 写作的三个基本元素 According to Dorothy Margaret Guinn(多罗西玛.格丽特.吉恩) and Daniel Marder(丹尼尔.玛德)

27、, co-authors of A Spectrum of Rhetoric修辞学的范畴, the three fundamental elements in writing are facts, reason and feeling（事实、推理、感情）. Any piece of written discourse contains a combination of these elements. A technical report（专业性报告） may be dominated by facts, though reason and feeling will also be found;

28、 whereas a letter to a close friend may be charged / filled with feeling, but reason and facts will appear as well. Knowing how these elements combine helps writers to shape（形成）, elaborate（说明） and refine（完善） their own expression so that they will be able to communicate with desirable results（能收到.预期的

29、效果）VI. The Three Principles for Our Study of Rhetoric (研究修辞学的三个原则) There are three principles we should abide by in our study of English rhetoric:1. We should pay due attention to the rhetorical traditions which have been handed down from classical rhetoric and from all the rhetorical modes and tech

30、niques at the three of rhetorical operations(修辞活动). We should study them and apply them to our practice of speaking and writing. Meanwhile the audience and the context（场合） should be borne in mind when we use any one of the rhetorical principles and techniques. ( see p.8)2. In order to achieve the be

31、st results in communication, one has to understand(了解) the person or people being written or spoken to, and do what is appropriate(合适的) for that particular occasion. (see p9)3. The third principle is that we should guard against(避免) the negative influence of our mother tongue. Dorothy M. Ginn(多罗西M.吉

32、恩)and Daniel Marder (丹尼尔.玛德) write: “Rhetorical operations are patterns of thought that direct(支配) and order(整理) our perceptions, ideas, and feelings（印象、思想、感情）.” (see p 11) VII. The Three Aesthetic Criteria in English Rhetoric: （修辞学的三个艺术标准）1. The three basic elements in rhetoric: English rhetoric ha

33、s longstanding traditions tracing back to Aristotle in Greece (384-322 BC), and even earlier. The three aesthetic criteria, logos (=logic), pathos (=emotion), ethos (=character), are its fundamental elements.The three aesthetic criteria discussed here are confined to their basic meanings and applica

34、tions in writing and speaking, equivalent to Chinese “逻辑”，“情感”and“人格” respectively.1) Logic and logical thinking （逻辑与逻辑思维）Logos, similar to “dao”(道) in ancient Chinese philosophy,contains profound implications of logic. When applied to the practice of writing and speaking, logos refers to the use of

35、 logical reasoning to persuade the audience or readers.Effective logical reasoning comes from sound（完美的）logical thinking, expressed in relevant material, proper organization, coherent sentences, and words that appropriately convey ones intended meanings. Examine the following example taken from a st

36、udents composition: (see p 19)(1) Formal logic and syllogism （形式逻辑和三段推理法）a. In formal logic, there are two basic approaches people often use for logical reasoning: deduction and induction.a) What is deduction (演绎推理)?Deduction is the inference of particular instances by reference to a general law or

37、principle. (-The New Oxford Dictionary of English) （演绎推理是由一般原理或规律推出关于特殊情况下的结论） Or: Deduction is reasoning from general principles to particular cases. e.g. All men must die. 人固有一死。（Major premise) I am a man. 我是人。(Minor premise) Therefore I must die. 我一定会死。(Conclusion)b) What is induction（归纳推理）?Induc

38、tion is the inference of a general law from particular instances. (ditto) （归纳推理是由一系列具体事实概括出一般规律） Or: Induction is the method of logic reasoning which contains or discovers a general law from particular facts or examples.e.g. Gold is a conductor. 金是一种导体。 Silver is a conductor. 银是一种导体。 Copper is a con

39、ductor. 铜是一种导体。 Iron is a conductor. 铁是一种导体。 They are all metals. 它们都是金属。 All metals are conductors. 所有金属都是导体。c) What is syllogism（三段推理法）?Syllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.e.g. All metals are conductors. (Major prem

40、ise)Copper is a metal. (Minor premise)Therefore copper is a conductor.(Conclusion)2) Changes in the connotation of pathos （情感含义的变化）(1) Originally, the term “pathos” referred to the emotion in general which a speaker tried to arouse in the audience. In modern rhetoric, it ranges from the study of the

41、 psychology of the audience or readers to the application of technology to convince them by emotional appeals(情感魅力). The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity as well as various other feelings. By playing upon(利用) such feelings, the writer inte

42、nds to change the beliefs and behavior of his or her readers. (2) Pathos in use today （当今所用的情感）A) The use of emotional appeals is all around us. It is an essential element in advertising, public relations, image-making(塑造形象), and education, especially in “affective education” (情感教育). In modern manag

43、ement, the practice of what is called “emotion investment” (感情投资) is also associated with pathos. For instance, the manager remembers to prepare a gift for each member of the staff on his or her birthday.B) Effective appeals to the emotions depend upon the skilful-often witty handling of language, f

44、requently accompanied by “exposure” （揭露）and “eloquence”（口才）。.1. “Exposure” evokes moral indignation - sometimes humorously, sometimes angrily - by condemning the unjust reality or revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are. The following is a letter that shows how an Amer

45、ican mother resorts to(采用) this skill to move others to stand against the unjust war against Vietnam: (see the letter on p 23) I am more than angry. I did not give birth to my one and only (=only) son to have him snatched away from me 18 years later(我不因18年后小孩从我身边抢走而生下唯一的男儿). My child has been loved

46、and cared for and taught right from wrong (一直受到辨别是非的教育) and will not be fed into(=be involved into) any egomaniacs war machine(不要卷入极端利己主义者的战争机器).Our 18-to 25-year-olds(18-25岁的人) have not brought this world to its present sorry state(目前这种可怜的境地). Men over the age of 35(35岁以上的人), down through the centu

47、ries(几个世纪以来), have brought us here, and we women have been in silent accord (静静保持一致).Well, this is one woman, one mother, who says No. I did not go through the magnificent agony of childbirth to have that glorious young life snuffed out(=killed被杀害)（我是由于不杀害光荣的年轻生命而经历了生小孩的巨大痛苦）.Until the presidents, p

48、remiers, supreme rulers, politburos(政客) and congressmen of the world are ready to physically, as opposed to(与对比) verbally, lead the world into combat, they can bloody well(sl.=very well) forget my child.Unite, mothers! Dont throw your sons and daughters away. Sometime, somewhere(某时某地), women must say No.No. No. No. No. No. Never my child(不，不，不，不，不，决不抛弃自己的男孩和女孩！).(Louise M. Saylor, Washington Post, Jan. 28, 1980) Mothers love for children is profound, and universal. The writer of the letter is a mother herself, and therefore, her appeal (呼