语言学-刘润清.doc

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1、Four short words sum up what has lifted most successful individuals above the crowd: a little bit more.-author-date语言学-刘润清刘润清语言学导论主要内容刘润清新编语言学教程主要内容Chapter 1 IntroductionI. Definition of linguisticsThe scientific or systemic study of language, which is always guided by the three canons of science: e

2、xhaustiveness, consistency and economy.II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammarLinguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in three basic ways.1. Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness.2. Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written

3、.3. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits.III. Scope of linguisticsMicrolinguistics: Phonetics; Phonology; Morphology; Syntax; Semantics; PragmaticsMacrolinguistics: Sociolinguitics; Psycholinguistics; Neurolinguistics; Stylistics; Discourse analysis; Computational linguistics; Cogni

4、tive linguistics; Applied linguisticsIV. Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.V. Origin of languageDing-Dong Theory: Human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: Languag

5、e developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: Language came from interjections, which express the speakers emotions.Yo-He-Ho Theory: Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory: Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movem

6、ents.Bow-Wow Theory: Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.VI. Design features of language1. Arbitrariness: This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. 2. Duality: L

7、anguage operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. 3. Productivity: Productivity or creativity refers to mans linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand

8、 an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language.4. Interchangeability: Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.5. Displacement: Displacement is a property of l

9、anguage enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.6. Specialization: Specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication.7. Cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted t

10、hrough heredity. VII. Functions of language1. Phatic function / communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.2. Directive function: Language is used to get th

11、e hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.3. Informative function: Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences serve this function.4. Interrogative: Language is used to ask for information from others. All que

12、stions expecting replies serve this function.5. Expressive function: Language is used to reveal the speakers attitudes and feelings. Ejaculations serve this function.6. Evocative function: Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve this funct

13、ion.7. Performative function: Language is used to do things or to perform acts. The judges imprisonment sentences, the presidents declaration of war or the Queens naming of a ship, etc., serve this function.VIII. Some major concepts in linguistics1. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar(1) Descriptiv

14、e grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.(2) As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.2. Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we s

15、tudy language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the d

16、ifferences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.3. Lange and paroleF. de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refer to particular reali

17、zation s of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.4. Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance re

18、fers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which

19、form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.6. Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in comm

20、unication.Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.Chapter 2 Sounds in languageI. Phonetics1. Phonetics: The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.2. Three major research fields of Phonetics

21、Articulatory phonetics: It is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: It deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics: It deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener. II. Articulators1. Seven major articulators

22、: pharynx, velum or soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge or alveolum, tongue, teeth and lips2. Voiced and voiceless soundsWhen the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lung is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are d

23、escribed as voiceless sounds.When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds.3. Nasal and oral soundsWhen the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; soun

24、ds produced this way are called nasal sounds.When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off, the air can escape only through the mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds.III. Classification of English speech sounds1. Conson

25、ants(1) Consonants: consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.(2) Manner of articulation and place of articulationManner of articulation refers to the type of stricture invo

26、lved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).Place of articulation refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).(3) Classification of consonantsIn terms of manners of artic

27、ulation, consonants can be grouped into stops, fricatives, affricated, liquids, nasals and glides.In terms of place of articulation, the consonants can be grouped into bilabials, labiodentals, dentals, alveolars, palatals, velars and glottal.2. Vowel(1) Vowels: vowels are sounds produced without obs

28、truction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.(2) The height of the tongue: front vowel; central vowels; back vowels(3) The shape of the lips: rounded vowels; unrounded vowels(4) The width of the mouth: open vowels; close vowels; semi-open vowels(5) Monophthongs and diph

29、thongsMonophthongs: They are those pure vowels that have an unchanging quality, either from the number or the constant quality.Diphthongs: A sequence of two sounds produced from one vowel position to anther.IV. Variations of sounds1. Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in

30、particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison.2. Elision: The loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision.3. Assimilation: The way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause change in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called ass

31、imilation.V. Phonology1. Phonology: phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.2. Phoneme: phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.3. Minimal pairs and setsMinimal

32、pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.4. Free variation: When two or more sounds occur in the same position withou

33、t any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.5. Distinctive features: When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature).VI. Syllables and consonant cluster1. Syllables: The English word beautiful consists of three spe

34、ech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables.Syllable structure: syllable onset rime (rhyme) nucleus (peak) coda consonant(s) vowel consonant(s) 2. Consonant cluster: In English some words may contain a sequence of two

35、 or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.VII. Suprasegementals1. Suprasegmental features: The sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes), are called suprasegmentals.2. Stress: When a word

36、has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to the speech sounds phenomenon, that of stress.3. Intonation: Speech sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, pe

37、ople generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyI. Morphology: morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.II. MorphemeMorpheme: morpheme is the smallest unit of language,

38、 a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.2. Types of morphemes(1) Free morphemeFree morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemes are free mo

39、rphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds.A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. A word may contain more than one root.When they are used with bound morphemes, the

40、 basic word-form involved is technically as the stem.Free morphemes can be divided into two categories. The first one is the set of message we convey. These free morphemes are called lexical morphemes and, since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an o

41、pen class of words.The second category of free morphemes is called functional morphemes. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words.(2) Bound morphemesSome morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. s

42、, -er, -ed and ing. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes. All affixes in English are bound. Affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word.Affixes ca

43、n also be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word.Bound morphemes can be classified into two categories. One category is derivational morphemes, which are used to make new words in the language and ar

44、e often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.The other category is inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.III. Morphs and allomorphMorphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic se

45、gments of an utterance on the level of parole.An allomorph is a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.IV. Types of word formation1. Compounding: By means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a com

46、pound. Compounds have strict patterns. The first element in the compound receives the main stress, but it is generally the second element that determines the compounds new word class.2. Derivation: Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. In contrast to compounding, a deriva

47、tional word consists of at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme.3. Other ways of word formation(1) Conversion: Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun. Such instances are called conversion. Conversion is also called zero derivation.(2) Backformation: