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1、Ch 42Ch 83Three Categories of ResearchQualitative research: research involving collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and sayThe “soft side” of researchResponses do not usually involve numbers except if you code them (i.e., quantify qualitative answers)Quantitative
2、research: research involving the use of structured questions in which response options have been predetermined and a large number of respondents involvedThe “hard side” of researchResponses involve numbersTABLE 6.1 Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research Q ualitative Q uantitative Research Research
3、 Objective To gain a qualitative under- To quantify the data and standing of the underlying generalize the results from the reasons and motivations sample to the population of interest Sample Small number of non- Large number of representative cases representative cases Data collection Unstructured
4、Structured Data analysis Nonstatistical Statistical Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final understanding course of action Ch 85Three Categories of ResearchPluralistic (or mixed) research: combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methods in order to gain the advantages of bothQ
5、ualitative Research usually comes firstOpen researchers eyesGain first-hand knowledge Help crystallize the problemServes as a foundation for quantitative researchQuantitative Research usually comes nextExample: Gillette Supports Equal Rights for Women: A Close Shave Pink Passion Venus introduced in
6、2003. The sales of Gillettes womens products are expected to increase to more than $1 billion by 2005 Venus is based on Sensor for Women Rely heavily on qualitative research One-on-one (individual) interview with 30 women from different segments of the potential target market Provides extensive of t
7、he respondents feelings in a more personal setting Findings: Women shave very differently from men Women shave more surface area than men but only shave two or three times per week Women prefer to shave in the shower and under dim lighting But men shave in front of a mirror Women prefer razors with
8、a firm grip and those that give a clean, smooth shave A survey with 500 women was conducted to substantiate (confirm) these findingsThis is QuantitativeQualitativeCh 87Steps in Conducting Qualitative ResearchDetermine the qualitative research approach (paradigm) if necessaryDetermine the qualitative
9、 data collection method(s)Qualitative data analysisThematic analysisStorytelling (report writing)Describe the themes and cite the data that grounds (i.e., justify) the themesCh 88Approaches (Paradigms) of Qualitative Research MethodsCh 89I. Narrative Research It studies the experiences expressed in
10、lived and told stories of individuals A narrative is understood as a spoken or written text given an account of an event/action or series of events/actions, chronologically connected Focusing on studying 1 or 2 individuals, gathering data through the collection of their stories, experiences, and chr
11、onologically ordering the meaning of those experiences10II. PhenomenologyIt describes the meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon (e.g., preference of luxury brands, pathological gambling, Internet addiction) I.e., describing what all participants have
12、 in common as they experience a phenomenonThe objective is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essencePhenomenology is not only a description, but it is also an interpretive process in which the researcher makes an interpretation of the meaning of the
13、 lived experienceBest use to understand a group of individuals common or shared experiences of a phenomenonSteps for PhenomenologyIdentify the phenomenon of interestCollect data from individuals who have experienced the phenomenonInterview 5 25 individuals. Other forms of data include observations,
14、journals, art, music, written responses, films, poetryAsk participants at least two broad, general questionsWhat have you experienced in terms of the phenomenon?What context or situations have you typically influenced or affected your experiences of the phenomenon?Phenomenological data analysisHighl
15、ight significant statements, sentences, or quotes that provide an understanding of how the participants experienced the phenomenonDevelop clusters of meaning from these statements into themesUse these statements and themes to write a description of what the participants experienced (i.e., textual de
16、scription) and include the context /setting that influenced how participants experienced the phenomenon (i.e., structural description)Present the essence of the phenomenon (common experience)Ch 812III. Case StudyCase study research involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases wi
17、thin a bounded system (i.e., a setting or a context) It is a preferred method when (a) how or why questions are being posed, (b) the investigator has little control over events, and (c) the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon with a real-life contextIt tries to illuminate a decision or set of deci
18、sions: why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what resultInvolve multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual materials, documents) and reports a case description and case-based themes13IV. Ethnography It is a descriptive study of a group and its beh
19、avior, characteristics, and culture The researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group It involves extended observations of the group, most often through participant observation The researcher immerses in the
20、 data-to-day lives of the people and observes and interviews the group participants Pay close attention to words, metaphors, symbols, and stories from the participants Study the meaning of the behavior, the language, and the interaction among members of the group Researchers must be “present and kno
21、wn” but not interfere with normal behaviors14Steps for EthnographyIdentify and locate a culture-sharing group to studySelect cultural themes or issues to study about the group Begins by examining people in interaction in ordinary setting and by attempting to discern pervasive patterns (e.g., Gather
22、information where the group works and lives (i.e., fieldwork)Documenting daily lives of individuals at the site through observations, interviews, and content analysis of written /audiovisual materialsForge a working set of rules or patterns as the final product of this analysisThe final product is a
23、 holistic cultural portrait of the group that incorporates the views of the participants (emic) and the views of the researcher (etic)Ch 815V. Grounded Theory An approach that moves beyond description and to generate or discover a theory, an abstract analytical schema of a process This theory develo
24、pment is grounded in the data from the field through interactions and social processes of people A category represents a unit of information composed of events, happenings, and instances Identify a core phenomenon and its categories (i.e., themes) Develop hypotheses that interrelate the categories a
25、nd consequence, and a story that describes the interrelationship16Steps for Grounded Theory MethodRaise research questions to (a) understand how individuals experience the process and identify the steps in the process, (b) identify the core phenomenon and categories (e.g., travel motivation, brand a
26、voidance, restaurant as a third-place), (c) identify the causes and consequences (i.e., antecedents and outcomes)Conduct 20 60 in-depth interviews to answer the questionsForm categories of information about the phenomenon being studies by segmenting informationFind several properties (subcategories
27、or attributes) within each category, and show the extreme possibilities on a continuumExplores categories of conditions that influence the phenomenon and their consequencesOr Write a “story line” that connects the categoriesEnd that this point or empirical verification via quantitative data17Anthony
28、s Insights There are more qualitative research paradigms / approaches e.g., content analysis on audiovisual materials These approaches share some similarities and differences However, what they are in common is the inductive process (i.e., induce theories) Which approach is best depends on the resea
29、rch objective and the data available (i.e., feasibility) You do not need to adhere to a specific qualitative research approach if you simply want explore a social phenomenon without generating theories and themes The terminologies used in qualitative research varies depending on the research paradig
30、mCh 818Qualitative Data Analysis: Thematic AnalysisCh 819Thematic Analysis Thematic analysis is a general method for qualitative analysis of transcripts or other similar text data sources It deals with data that involves the creation and application of codes to data The outputs are themes and their
31、meaning units as well as how themes relate to each other without the data What counts as a theme depends on theory, industry practice, research experience, the data itself, and a lot of creativities! The data being analyzed might take any forms Interview transcript, field notes, documents, video foo
32、tage, photographsCh 820Steps for Thematic Analysis1. Prepare data and transcript Transcribe the data into text accurately (i.e., Q&As exactly as they are collected)2. Identify meaning units A meaning units (i.e., theme instance, property, aspect, attribute, characteristic) is a string of text that e
33、xpresses a single coherent thought Code each meaning unit for later tracking and organization3. Group patterned meaning units Identify and group recurring meaning units They can be sub-themes (i.e., sub-categories)21Steps for Thematic Analysis4. Generate Theme statements For each group of meaning un
34、its, identify or generate a word or brief phrase stating the meaning shared in all instances of the meaning units These words/phases are basic themes (or categories)5. Create a thematic table of themes and meaning units For each theme, identify all the meaning units which are examples of the theme (
35、instances of a theme)6. Write out a summary of the themes Write a brief narrative summarizing the main issues being investigated Write an introductory sentence or paragraph to provide context to the theme statements Write a declarative sentence of to describe each theme Ensure that the theme stateme
36、nt adequately and accurately express their original meaningCh 822Themes A theme is also refer to as concept or category It is a characteristic or an aspect of a phenomenon An abstract representation of an event, object, or action/interaction that a researcher identifies as being significant in the d
37、ata That is, induce themes from text or other materials Through coding (grounded theorists) or sometimes referred to as qualitative analysis (content analysts)23Coding and Theme Identification Coding (or thematic coding) in qualitative research refers to the creation of categories (themes) in relati
38、on to data The grouping together of different instances of datum under an umbrella term that can enable them to be regarded as “of the same type” It is a process of giving a code (i.e., a name/term, a definition, and descriptions) to a theme and sub-themes (sub-categories) Referred to as opening cod
39、ing The researcher may also need to relate the themes to each other Referred to as relational coding24Some Theme Identification Techniques Word Repetitions List out and count the words Indigenous Categories Look for local terms that may sound (un)familiar or used in an (un)familiar way Used to explo
40、re novel phenomena and themes Key-words-in-context Look at the keywords of how they are used in context of the text Social science queries Examine the setting and context, the perspectives of the informants, and informants ways of thinking about people, objects, processes, activities, events, and re
41、lationshipsRead more25Process in Coding and Theme IdentificationIdentify, categorize, and label the themes or patterns in your data.Review your transcripts, reports, and notes, indicating major themes in the margins.Make a list of the themes as you read Read the transcript and keep your evaluation q
42、uestions in mindExample: Employment motivation Read through the transcript and look for examples that fit themes related to “employee needs,” “career goals,” “family and personal constraints,” and “job application criteria” It is perfectly acceptable to have a list of themes ahead of time (based on
43、theory) and to add themes as you readYou can also combine themes into a single theme or separate a theme into several themes as you readOrganize your themes and transcriptsLink the themes and the transcripts through e.g., colors, notes, tablesCh 826 Example 1: Consumer needs in restaurants (Core phe
44、nomenon) Theme 1: Physical benefits: Place-as-Practical Cognitive loyalty) Food, price, ambient conditions, space/layout, etc. Theme 2: Social benefits: Place-as-Gathering Community loyalty Remedy/prevent social loneliness through companionship, a place for social gathering, a means to share informa
45、tion, etc. Theme 3: Emotional benefits: Place-as-Home Ultimate loyalty Remedy/prevent emotional loneliness through emotional support; a place to express feelings: joy, love, fun, etc.Coding and Theme Identification ExampleCh 827 Example 2: Employment Motivation (Core Phenomenon) Theme 1: Job Benefit
46、s with three sub-themes (meaning units, properties, attributes, characteristics, or aspects) (1) Pay Benefits (salary, bonus, commission, etc.) (2) Health benefits (sick leave, medical insurance, etc.) (3) Vacation (paid leave, travel allowance, etc.) Theme 2: and so onCoding and Theme Identificatio
47、n ExampleCh 828Thematic Table Example Theme 1: Job Benefits with three sub-themes (meaning units, attributes, characteristics) (1) Pay Benefits (salary, bonus, commission, etc.) (2) Health benefits (sick leave, medical insurance, etc.) (3) Vacation (paid leave, travel allowance, etc.)ThemesMeaning u
48、nitsPay benefitsSalary, bonus, commissionHealth benefitsSick leave, medical insurance, health clubVacationPaid leave, travel allowanceCh 829Thematic Table ExampleThemesMeaning units / PropertiesPay benefitsSalary, bonus, commissionHealth benefitsSick leave, medical insurance, health clubVacationPaid
49、 leave, travel allowanceThemesSub-themesMeaning units / PropertiesJob BenefitsPay benefitsSalary, bonus, commissionHealth benefitsSick leave, medical insurance, health clubVacationPaid leave, travel allowanceTheme 2Theme 3Ch 830Class of Qualitative Data Collection MethodsObservationsFocus groupIn-de
50、pth interviewProjectiveOthers (aside)Documents and other printed materialsAudiovisual materialsCh 831I. Observation Techniques Observation methods: techniques in which the researcher relies on his or her powers of observation rather than communicating with a person in order to obtain informationCh 8
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